Unwinding of the Nascent Lagging Strand by Rep and PriA Enables the Direct Restart of Stalled Replication Forks

The helicases DinG, Rep and UvrD cooperate to promote replication across transcription units in vivo

How living cells deal with head-on collisions of the replication and transcription complexes has been debated for a long time. Even in the widely studied model bacteria Escherichia coli, the enzymes that take care of such collisions are still unknown. We report here that in vivo, the DinG, Rep and UvrD helicases are essential for efficient replication across highly transcribed regions. We show that when rRNA operons (rrn) are inverted to face replication, the viability of the dinG mutant is affected and over-expression of RNase H rescues the growth defect, showing that DinG acts in vivo to remove R-loops. In addition, DinG, Rep and UvrD exert a common function, which requires the presence of two of these three helicases. After replication blockage by an inverted rrn, Rep in conjunction with DinG or UvrD removes RNA polymerase, a task that is fulfilled in its absence by the SOS-induced DinG and UvrD helicases. Finally, Rep and UvrD also act at inverted sequences other than rrn, and promote replication through highly transcribed regions in wild-type E. coli.

Genetic analysis of repair and damage tolerance mechanisms for DNA-protein cross-links in Escherichia coli

DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) are unique among DNA lesions in their unusually bulky nature. We have recently shown that nucleotide excision repair (NER) and RecBCD-dependent homologous recombination (HR) collaboratively alleviate the lethal effect of DPCs in Escherichia coli. In this study, to gain further insight into the damage-processing mechanism for DPCs, we assessed the sensitivities of a panel of repair-deficient E. coli mutants to DPC-inducing agents, including formaldehyde (FA) and 5-azacytidine (azaC). We show here that the damage tolerance mechanism involving HR and subsequent replication restart (RR) provides the most effective means of cell survival against DPCs. Translesion synthesis does not serve as an alternative damage tolerance mechanism for DPCs in cell survival. Elimination of DPCs from the genome relies primarily on NER, which provides a second and moderately effective means of cell survival against DPCs. Interestingly, Cho rather than UvrC seems to be an effective nuclease for the NER of DPCs. Together with the genes responsible for HR, RR, and NER, the mutation of genes involved in several aspects of DNA repair and transactions, such as recQ, xth nfo, dksA, and topA, rendered cells slightly but significantly sensitive to FA but not azaC, possibly reflecting the complexity of DPCs or cryptic lesions induced by FA. UvrD may have an additional role outside NER, since the uvrD mutation conferred a slight azaC sensitivity on cells. Finally, DNA glycosylases mitigate azaC toxicity, independently of the repair of DPCs, presumably by removing 5-azacytosine or its degradation product from the chromosome.

Stimulation of UvrD helicase by UvrAB

Helicases play critical roles in all aspects of nucleic acid metabolism by catalyzing the remodeling of DNA and RNA structures. UvrD is an abundant helicase in Escherichia coli with well characterized functions in mismatch and nucleotide excision repair and a possible role in displacement of proteins such as RecA from single-stranded DNA. The mismatch repair protein MutL is known to stimulate UvrD. Here we show that the nucleotide excision repair proteins UvrA and UvrB can together stimulate UvrD-catalyzed unwinding of a range of DNA substrates containing strand discontinuities, including forked DNA substrates. The stimulation is specific for UvrD, as UvrAB failed to stimulate Rep helicase, a UvrD homologue. Moreover, although UvrAB can promote limited strand displacement, stimulation of UvrD did not require the strand displacement function of UvrAB. We conclude that UvrAB, like MutL, modulate UvrD helicase activity. This stimulation likely plays a role in DNA strand and protein displacement by UvrD in nucleotide excision repair. Promotion of UvrD-catalyzed unwinding of nicked duplexes by UvrAB may also explain the need for UvrAB and UvrD in Okazaki fragment processing in cells lacking DNA polymerase I. More generally, these data support the idea that helicase activity is regulated in vivo, with helicases acting as part of multisubunit complexes rather than in isolation.

SSB as an organizer/mobilizer of genome maintenance complexes

When duplex DNA is altered in almost any way (replicated, recombined, or repaired), single strands of DNA are usually intermediates, and single-stranded DNA binding (SSB) proteins are present. These proteins have often been described as inert, protective DNA coatings. Continuing research is demonstrating a far more complex role of SSB that includes the organization and/or mobilization of all aspects of DNA metabolism. Escherichia coli SSB is now known to interact with at least 14 other proteins that include key components of the elaborate systems involved in every aspect of DNA metabolism. Most, if not all, of these interactions are mediated by the amphipathic C-terminus of SSB. In this review, we summarize the extent of the eubacterial SSB interaction network, describe the energetics of interactions with SSB, and highlight the roles of SSB in the process of recombination. Similar themes to those highlighted in this review are evident in all biological systems.

Resolution of converging replication forks by RecQ and topoisomerase III

RecQ-like DNA helicases pair with cognate topoisomerase III enzymes to function in the maintenance of genomic integrity in many organisms. These proteins play roles in stabilizing stalled replication forks, the S phase checkpoint response, and suppressing genetic crossovers, and their inactivation results in hyper-recombination, gross chromosomal rearrangements, chromosome segregation defects, and human disease. Biochemical activities associated with these enzymes include the ability to resolve double Holliday junctions, a process thought to lead to the suppression of crossover formation. Using Escherichia coli RecQ and topoisomerase III, we demonstrate a second activity for this pair of enzymes that could account for their role in maintaining genomic stability: resolution of converging replication forks. This resolution reaction is specific for the RecQ-topoisomerase III pair and is mediated by interaction of both of these enzymes with the single-stranded DNA-binding protein SSB.

UvrD and UvrD252 counteract RecQ, RecJ, and RecFOR in a rep mutant of Escherichia coli

Rep and UvrD are two related Escherichia coli helicases, and inactivating both is lethal. Based on the observation that the synthetic lethality of rep and uvrD inactivation is suppressed in the absence of the recombination presynaptic proteins RecF, RecO, or RecR, it was proposed that UvrD is essential in the rep mutant to counteract a deleterious RecFOR-dependent RecA binding. We show here that the synthetic lethality of rep and uvrD mutations is also suppressed by recQ and recJ inactivation but not by rarA inactivation. Furthermore, it is independent of the action of UvrD in nucleotide excision repair and mismatch repair. These observations support the idea that UvrD counteracts a deleterious RecA binding to forks blocked in the rep mutant. An ATPase-deficient mutant of UvrD [uvrD(R284A)] is dominant negative in a rep mutant, but only in the presence of all RecQJFOR proteins, suggesting that the UvrD(R284A) mutant protein is deleterious when it counteracts one of these proteins. In contrast, the uvrD252 mutant (G30D), which exhibits a strongly decreased ATPase activity, is viable in a rep mutant, where it allows replication fork reversal. We conclude that the residual ATPase activity of UvrD252 prevents a negative effect on the viability of the rep mutant and allows UvrD to counteract the action of RecQ, RecJ, and RecFOR at forks blocked in the rep mutant. Models for the action of UvrD at blocked forks are proposed.

Translation factor IF2 at the interface of transposition and replication by the PriA-PriC pathway

Bacteriophage Mu DNA synthesis is initiated during transposition by replication restart proteins PriA, DnaT and either PriB or PriC. The PriA-PriC pathway requires PriA's helicase activity and other host factors that promote the orderly transition from transpososome to replisome on the Mu DNA template. The host factor MRFalpha-PR, which removes obstacles to PriA binding and promotes the PriA-PriC pathway, was identified to be the translation initiation factor IF2. Purified isoform IF2-2, which is truncated at the N-terminal end, had full MRFalpha-PR activity whereas full-length IF2-1 was inactive. IF2-2 was bound to the Mu DNA template specifically at the step for prereplisome assembly. Prior steps in the orderly transition from transpososome were essential to promote efficient IF2-2 binding. Moreover, PriA helicase activity was subsequently needed to displace IF2-2, remodelling the template to permit replisome assembly. IF2's role in the transition mechanism as well as its function as G protein and translation factor suggest its potential to regulate DNA synthesis by this pathway.

Replication fork regression in vitro by the Werner syndrome protein (WRN): holliday junction formation, the effect of leading arm structure and a potential role for WRN exonuclease activity

The premature aging and cancer-prone disease Werner syndrome stems from loss of WRN protein function. WRN deficiency causes replication abnormalities, sensitivity to certain genotoxic agents, genomic instability and early replicative senescence in primary fibroblasts. As a RecQ helicase family member, WRN is a DNA-dependent ATPase and unwinding enzyme, but also possesses strand annealing and exonuclease activities. RecQ helicases are postulated to participate in pathways responding to replication blockage, pathways possibly initiated by fork regression. In this study, a series of model replication fork substrates were used to examine the fork regression capability of WRN. Our results demonstrate that WRN catalyzes fork regression and Holliday junction formation. This process is an ATP-dependent reaction that is particularly efficient on forks containing single-stranded gaps of at least 11-13 nt on the leading arm at the fork junction. Importantly, WRN exonuclease activity, by digesting the leading daughter strand, enhances regression of forks with smaller gaps on the leading arm, thus creating an optimal structure for regression. Our results suggest that the multiple activities of WRN cooperate to promote replication fork regression. These findings, along with the established cellular consequences of WRN deficiency, strongly support a role for WRN in regression of blocked replication forks.

Replisome fate upon encountering a leading strand block and clearance from DNA by recombination proteins

Replication forks that collapse upon encountering a leading strand lesion are reactivated by a recombinative repair process called replication restart. Using rolling circle DNA substrates to model replication forks, we examine the fate of the helicase and both DNA polymerases when the leading strand polymerase is blocked. We find that the helicase continues over 0.5 kb but less than 3 kb and that the lagging strand DNA polymerase remains active despite its connection to a stalled leading strand enzyme. Furthermore, the blocked leading strand polymerase remains stably bound to the replication fork, implying that it must be dismantled from DNA in order for replication restart to initiate. Genetic studies have identified at least four gene products required for replication restart, RecF, RecO, RecR, and RecA. We find here that these proteins displace a stalled polymerase at a DNA template lesion. Implications of these results for replication fork collapse and recovery are discussed.

Structural basis of the 3'-end recognition of a leading strand in stalled replication forks by PriA

In eubacteria, PriA helicase detects the stalled DNA replication forks. This critical role of PriA is ascribed to its ability to bind to the 3' end of a nascent leading DNA strand in the stalled replication forks. The crystal structures in complexes with oligonucleotides and the combination of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and mutagenesis reveal that the N-terminal domain of PriA possesses a binding pocket for the 3'-terminal nucleotide residue of DNA. The interaction with the deoxyribose 3'-OH is essential for the 3'-terminal recognition. In contrast, the direct interaction with 3'-end nucleobase is unexpected, considering the same affinity for oligonucleotides carrying the four bases at the 3' end. Thus, the N-terminal domain of PriA recognizes the 3'-end base in a base-non-selective manner, in addition to the deoxyribose and 5'-side phosphodiester group, of the 3'-terminal nucleotide to acquire both sufficient affinity and non-selectivity to find all of the stalled replication forks generated during DNA duplication. This unique feature is prerequisite for the proper positioning of the helicase domain of PriA on the unreplicated double-stranded DNA.

Functional defects in transfer RNAs lead to the accumulation of ribosomal RNA precursors

Normal expression and function of transfer RNA (tRNA) are of paramount importance for translation. In this study, we show that tRNA defects are also associated with increased levels of immature ribosomal RNA (rRNA). This association was first shown in detail for a mutant strain that underproduces tRNA(Arg2) in which unprocessed 16S and 23S rRNA levels were increased several-fold. Ribosome profiles indicated that unprocessed 23S rRNA in the mutant strain accumulates in ribosomal fractions that sediment with altered mobility. Underproduction of tRNA(Arg2) also resulted in growth defects under standard laboratory growth conditions. Interestingly, the growth and rRNA processing defects were attenuated when cells were grown in minimal medium or at low temperatures, indicating that the requirement for tRNA(Arg2) may be reduced under conditions of slower growth. Other tRNA defects were also studied, including a defect in RNase P, an enzyme involved in tRNA processing; a mutation in tRNA(Trp) that results in its degradation at elevated temperatures; and the titration of the tRNA that recognizes rare AGA codons. In all cases, the levels of unprocessed 16S and 23S rRNA were enhanced. Thus, a range of tRNA defects can indirectly influence translation via effects on the biogenesis of the translation apparatus.

The Escherichia coli UvrD helicase is essential for Tus removal during recombination-dependent replication restart from Ter sites

Blocking replication forks in the Escherichia coli chromosome by ectopic Ter sites renders the RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination and SOS induction essential for viability. In this work, we show that the E. coli helicase II (UvrD) is also essential for the growth of cells where replication forks are arrested at ectopic Ter sites. We propose that UvrD is required for Tus removal from Ter sites. The viability of a SOS non-inducible Ter-blocked strain is fully restored by the expression of the two SOS-induced proteins UvrD and RecA at high level, indicating that these are the only two SOS-induced proteins required for replication across Ter/Tus complexes. Several observations suggest that UvrD acts in concert with homologous recombination and we propose that UvrD is associated with recombination-initiated replication forks and that it removes Tus when a PriA-dependent, restarted replication fork goes across the Ter/Tus complex. Finally, expression of the UvrD homologue from Bacilus subtilis PcrA restores the growth of uvrD-deficient Ter-blocked cells, indicating that the capacity to dislodge Tus is conserved in this distant bacterial species.

The Werner and Bloom syndrome proteins catalyze regression of a model replication fork

The premature aging and cancer-prone diseases Werner and Bloom syndromes are caused by loss of function of WRN and BLM proteins, respectively. At the cellular level, WRN or BLM deficiency causes replication abnormalities, DNA damage hypersensitivity, and genome instability, suggesting that these proteins might participate in resolution of replication blockage. Although WRN and BLM are helicases belonging to the RecQ family, both have been recently shown to also facilitate pairing of complementary DNA strands. In this study, we demonstrate that both WRN and BLM (but not other selected helicases) can coordinate their unwinding and pairing activities to regress a model replication fork substrate. Notably, fork regression is widely believed to be the initial step in responding to replication blockage. Our findings suggest that WRN and/or BLM might regress replication forks in vivo as part of a genome maintenance pathway, consistent with the phenotypes of WRN- and BLM-deficient cells.

Replisome assembly and the direct restart of stalled replication forks

Failure to reactivate either stalled or collapsed replication forks is a source of genomic instability in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, dedicated fork repair systems that involve both recombination and replication proteins have been identified genetically and characterized biochemically. Replication conflicts are solved through several pathways, some of which require recombination and some of which operate directly at the stalled fork. Some recent biochemical observations support models of direct fork repair in which the removal of the blocking template lesion is not always required for replication restart.

Rep and PriA helicase activities prevent RecA from provoking unnecessary recombination during replication fork repair

The rescue of replication forks stalled on the template DNA was investigated using an assay for synthetic lethality that provides a visual readout of cell viability and permits investigation of why certain mutations are lethal when combined. The results presented show that RecA and other recombination proteins are often engaged during replication because RecA is present and provokes recombination rather than because recombination is necessary. This occurs particularly frequently in cells lacking the helicase activities of Rep and PriA. We propose that these two proteins normally limit the loading of RecA on ssDNA regions exposed on the leading strand template of damaged forks, and do so by unwinding the nascent lagging strand, thus facilitating reannealing of the parental strands. Gap closure followed by loading of the DnaB replicative helicase enables synthesis of the leading strand to continue. Without either activity, RecA loads more frequently on the DNA and drives fork reversal, which creates a chickenfoot structure and a requirement for other recombination proteins to re-establish a viable fork. The assay also reveals that stalled transcription complexes are common impediments to fork progression, and that damaged forks often reverse independently of RecA.

Unwinding of Forked DNA Structures by UvrD

Many studies have demonstrated the need for processing of blocked replication forks to underpin genome duplication. UvrD helicase in Escherichia coli has been implicated in the processing of damaged replication forks, or the recombination intermediates formed from damaged forks. Here we show that UvrD can unwind forked DNA structures, in part due to the ability of UvrD to initiate unwinding from discontinuities within the phosphodiester backbone of DNA. UvrD does therefore have the capacity to target DNA intermediates of replication and recombination. Such an activity resulted in unwinding of what would be the parental duplex DNA ahead of either a stalled replication fork or a D-loop formed by recombination. However, UvrD had a substrate preference for fork structures having a nascent lagging strand at the branch point but no leading strand. Furthermore, at such structures the polarity of UvrD altered so that unwinding of the lagging strand predominated. This reaction is reminiscent of the PriC-Rep pathway of replication restart, suggesting that UvrD and Rep may have at least partially redundant functions.

RuvABC is required to resolve holliday junctions that accumulate following replication on damaged templates in Escherichia coli

RuvABC is a complex that promotes branch migration and resolution of Holliday junctions. Although ruv mutants are hypersensitive to UV irradiation, the molecular event(s) that necessitate RuvABC processing in vivo are not known. Here, we used a combination of two-dimensional gel analysis and electron microscopy to reveal that although ruvAB and ruvC mutants are able to resume replication following arrest at UV-induced lesions, molecules that replicate in the presence of DNA damage accumulate unresolved Holliday junctions. The failure to resolve the Holliday junctions on the fully replicated molecules correlates with a delayed loss of genomic integrity that is likely to account for the loss of viability in these cells. The strand exchange intermediates that accumulate in ruv mutants are distinct from those observed at arrested replication forks and are not subject to resolution by RecG. These results indicate that the Holliday junctions observed in ruv mutants are intermediates of a repair pathway that is distinct from that of the recovery of arrested replication forks. A model is proposed in which RuvABC is required to resolve junctions that arise during the repair of a subset of nonarresting lesions after replication has passed through the template.

Nascent DNA processing by RecJ favors lesion repair over translesion synthesis at arrested replication forks in Escherichia coli

DNA lesions that arrest replication can lead to rearrangements, mutations, or lethality when not processed accurately. After UV-induced DNA damage in Escherichia coli, RecA and several recF pathway proteins are thought to process arrested replication forks and ensure that replication resumes accurately. Here, we show that the RecJ nuclease and RecQ helicase, which partially degrade the nascent DNA at blocked replication forks, are required for the rapid recovery of DNA synthesis and prevent the potentially mutagenic bypass of UV lesions. In the absence of RecJ, or to a lesser extent RecQ, the recovery of replication is significantly delayed, and both the recovery and cell survival become dependent on translesion synthesis by polymerase V. The RecJ-mediated processing is proposed to restore the region containing the lesion to a form that allows repair enzymes to remove the blocking lesion and DNA synthesis to resume. In the absence of nascent DNA processing, polymerase V can synthesize past the lesion to prevent lethality, although this occurs with slower kinetics and a higher frequency of mutagenesis.

A novel dnaC mutation that suppresses priB rep mutant phenotypes in Escherichia coli K-12

The loading of a replisome in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells at an origin of DNA replication and during replication restart is a highly ordered and regulated process. During replication restart in Escherichia coli, the PriA, PriB, PriC, DnaT and Rep proteins form multiple pathways that bind to repaired replication forks. These complexes are then recognized by DnaC as sites to load DnaB, the replicative helicase. Several dnaC mutations have been isolated that suppress phenotypes of some replication restart mutants. A new dnaC mutation (dnaC824) is reported here that efficiently suppresses priB rep mutant phenotypes. Furthermore, it is shown that dnaC824 will suppress phenotypes of priB priA300, rep priA300 and priB priC strains. Unlike other dnaC suppressors, it can only weakly suppress the absence of priA. Others have reported a different type of dnaC mutation, dnaC1331, is able to mimic priB mutant phenotypes. This is supported herein by showing that like dnaC1331, a priB mutation is synthetically lethal with a dam mutation and this can be rescued by a mutH mutation. Furthermore, priB dam lethality can also be suppressed by dnaC824. Like a priB mutation, a dnaC1331 mutation causes a priA2::kan-like phenotype when combined with priA300. Lastly, we show that dnaC824 is dominant to wild type and that dnaC1331 is recessive to wild type. Several models are discussed for the action of these mutant dnaC proteins in replication restart.

RuvAB is essential for replication forks reversal in certain replication mutants

Inactivated replication forks may be reversed by the annealing of leading- and lagging-strand ends, resulting in the formation of a Holliday junction (HJ) adjacent to a DNA double-strand end. In Escherichia coli mutants deficient for double-strand end processing, resolution of the HJ by RuvABC leads to fork breakage, a reaction that we can directly quantify. Here we used the HJ-specific resolvase RusA to test a putative role of the RuvAB helicase in replication fork reversal (RFR). We show that the RuvAB complex is required for the formation of a RusA substrate in the polymerase III mutants dnaEts and holD, affected for the Pol III catalytic subunit and clamp loader, and in the helicase mutant rep. This finding reveals that the recombination enzyme RuvAB targets forks in vivo and we propose that it directly converts forks into HJs. In contrast, RFR occurs in the absence of RuvAB in the dnaNts mutant, affected for the processivity clamp of Pol III, and in the priA mutant, defective for replication restart. This suggests alternative pathways of RFR.

PriB stimulates PriA helicase via an interaction with single-stranded DNA

The frequency with which replication forks break down in all organisms requires that specific mechanisms ensure completion of genome duplication. In Escherichia coli a major pathway for reloading of the replicative apparatus at sites of fork breakdown is dependent on PriA helicase. PriA acts in conjunction with PriB and DnaT to effect loading of the replicative helicase DnaB back onto the lagging strand template, either at stalled fork structures or at recombination intermediates. Here we showed that PriB stimulates PriA helicase, acting to increase the apparent processivity of PriA. This stimulation correlates with the ability of PriB to form a ternary complex with PriA and DNA structures containing single-stranded DNA, suggesting that the known single-stranded DNA binding function of PriB facilitates unwinding by PriA helicase. This enhanced apparent processivity of PriA might play an important role in generating single-stranded DNA at stalled replication forks upon which to load DnaB. However, stimulation of PriA by PriB is not DNA structure-specific, demonstrating that targeting of stalled forks and recombination intermediates during replication restart likely resides with PriA alone.