Probing the intermediates in the MO + CH4↔ M + CH3OH reactions by matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy

Experimental and theoretical studies of the infrared spectra and bonding properties of NgBeCO₃ and a comparison with NgBeO (Ng = He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe)

The novel neon complex NeBeCO3 has been prepared in a low-temperature neon matrix via codeposition of laser-evaporated beryllium atoms with O2 + CO/Ne. Doping by the heavier noble gas atoms argon, krypton and xenon yielded the associated adducts NgBeCO3 (Ng = Ar, Kr, Xe). The noble gas complexes have been identified via infrared spectroscopy. Quantum chemical calculations of NgBeCO3 and NgBeO (Ng = He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) using ab initio methods and density functional theory show that the Ng-BeCO3 bonds are slightly longer and weaker than the Ng-BeO bonds. The energy decomposition analysis of the Ng-Be bonds suggests that the attractive interactions come mainly from the Ng → BeCO3 and Ng → BeO σ donation.

Infrared spectra and structures of the neutral and charged CrCO2 and Cr(CO2)2 isomers in solid neon

The reactions from codeposition of laser-ablated chromium atoms with carbon dioxide in excess neon are studied by infrared absorption spectroscopy. The species formed are identified by the effects of isotopic substitution on their infrared spectra. Density functional calculations are performed to support the spectral assignments and to interpret the geometric and electronic structures of the experimentally observed species. Besides the previously reported insertion products OCrCO and O2Cr(CO)2, the one-to-one Cr(CO2) complex and the one-to-two Cr(CO2)2 complex as well as the CrOCrCO and OCCrCO3 complexes are also formed. The Cr(CO2) complex is characterized to be side-on η(2)-C,O-coordinated. The Cr(CO2)2 complex is identified to involve a side-on η(2)-C,O-coordinated CO2 and an end-on η(1)-O-coordinated CO2. OCCrCO3 is a carbonate carbonyl complex predicted to have a planar structure with a η(2)-O,O-coordinated carbonate ligand. The CrOCrCO complex is predicted to be linear with a high-spin ground state. Besides the neutral molecules, charged species are also produced. The Cr(CO2)(+) and Cr(CO2)2(+) cation complexes are characterized to have linear end-on η(1)-O-coordinated structures with blue-shifted antisymmetric CO2 stretching vibrational frequencies. The OCrCO(-) anion is bent with the Cr-O and CO stretching frequencies red-shifted from those of OCrCO neutral molecule.

Formation and infrared spectroscopic characterization of three oxygen-rich BiO4 isomers in solid argon

The reactions of bismuth atoms and O2 have been investigated using matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations. The ground state bismuth atoms react with dioxygen to form the BiOO and Bi(O2)2 complexes spontaneously on annealing. The BiOO molecule is characterized to be an end-on bonded superoxide complex, while the Bi(O2)2 molecule is characterized to be a superoxo bismuth peroxide complex, [Bi(3+)(O2(-))(O2(2-))]. Under UV-visible light irradiation, the Bi(O2)2 complex rearranges to the more stable OBiOOO isomer, an end-on bonded bismuth monoxide-ozonide complex. The end-on-bonded OBiOOO complex further rearranges to a more stable side-on bonded OBiO3 isomer upon sample annealing. In addition, the bent bismuth dioxide anion is also formed and assigned.

C-Cl activation by group IV metal oxides in solid argon matrixes: matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy and theoretical investigations of the reactions of MOx (M = Ti, Zr; x = 1, 2) with CH3Cl

Reactions of the ground-state titanium and zirconium monoxide and dioxide molecules with monochloromethane in excess argon matrixes have been investigated in solid argon by infrared absorption spectroscopy and density functional theoretical calculations. The results show that the ground-state MOx (M = Ti, Zr; x = 1, 2) molecules react with CH3Cl to first form the weakly bound MO(CH3Cl) and MO2(CH3Cl) complexes. The MO(CH3Cl) complexes can rearrange to the CH3M(O)Cl isomers with the Cl atom of CH3Cl coordination to the metal center of MO upon UV light irradiation (λ < 300 nm). Theoretical calculations indicate that the electronic state crossings exist from the MO + CH3Cl reaction to the more stable CH3M(O)Cl molecules via the MO(CH3Cl) complexes traversing their corresponding transition states. The MO2(CH3Cl) complexes can isomerize to the more stable CH3OM(O)Cl molecules with the addition of the C-Cl bond of CH3Cl to one of the O═M bonds of MO2 upon annealing after broad-band light irradiation. The C-Cl activation by the MOx mechanism was interpreted by the calculated potential energy profiles.

C-H bond activation by oxygen-centered radicals over atomic clusters

Saturated hydrocarbons, or alkanes, are major constituents of natural gas and oil. Directly transforming alkanes into more complex organic compounds is a value-adding process, but the task is very difficult to achieve, especially at low temperature. Alkanes can react at high temperature, but these reactions (with oxygen, for example) are difficult to control and usually proceed to carbon dioxide and water, the thermodynamically stable byproducts. Consequently, a great deal of research effort has been focused on generating and studying chemical entities that are able to react with alkanes or efficiently activate C-H bonds at lower temperatures, preferably room temperature. To identify low-temperature methods of C-H bond activation, researchers have investigated free radicals, that is, species with open-shell electronic structures. Oxygen-centered radicals are typical of the open-shell species that naturally occur in atmospheric, chemical, and biological systems. In this Account, we survey atomic clusters that contain oxygen-centered radicals (O(-•)), with an emphasis on radical generation and reaction with alkanes near room temperature. Atomic clusters are an intermediate state of matter, situated between isolated atoms and condensed-phase materials. Atomic clusters containing the O(-•) moiety have generated promising results for low-temperature C-H bond activation. After a brief introduction to the experimental methods and the compositions of atomic clusters that contain O(-•) radicals, we focus on two important factors that can dramatically influence C-H bond activation. The first factor is spin. The O(-•)-containing clusters have unpaired spin density distributions over the oxygen atoms. We show that the nature of the unpaired spin density distribution, such as localization and delocalization within the clusters, heavily influences the reactivity of O(-•) radicals in C-H bond activation. The second factor is charge. The O(-•)-containing clusters can be negatively charged, positively charged, or neutral overall. We discuss how the charge state may influence C-H bond activation. Moreover, for a given charge state, such as the cationic state, it can be demonstrated that local charge distribution around the O(-•) centers can also significantly change the reactivity in C-H bond activation. Through judicious synthetic choices, spin and charge can be readily controllable physical quantities in atomic clusters. The adjustment of these two properties can impact C-H bond activation, thus constituting an important consideration in the rational design of catalysts for practical alkane transformations.

Theoretical study on the gas-phase reaction mechanism between palladium monoxide and methane

The gas-phase reaction mechanism between palladium monoxide and methane has been theoretically investigated on the singlet and triplet state potential energy surfaces (PESs) at the CCSD(T)/AVTZ//B3LYP/6-311+G(2d, 2p), SDD level. The major reaction channel leads to the products PdCH(2) + H(2)O, whereas the minor channel results in the products Pd + CH(3)OH, CH(2)OPd + H(2), and PdOH + CH(3). The minimum energy reaction pathway for the formation of main products (PdCH(2) + H(2)O), involving one spin inversion, prefers to start at the triplet state PES and afterward proceed along the singlet state PES, where both CH(3)PdOH and CH(3)Pd(O)H are the critical intermediates. Furthermore, the rate-determining step is RS-CH(3) PdOH → RS-2-TS1cb → RS-CH(2)Pd(H)OH with the rate constant of k = 1.48 × 10(12) exp(-93,930/RT). For the first C-H bond cleavage, both the activation strain ΔE(≠)(strain) and the stabilizing interaction ΔE(≠)(int) affect the activation energy ΔE(≠), with ΔE(≠)(int) in favor of the direct oxidative insertion. On the other hand, in the PdCH(2) + H(2) O reaction, the main products are Pd + CH(3)OH, and CH(3)PdOH is the energetically preferred intermediate. In the CH(2)OPd + H(2) reaction, the main products are Pd + CH(3)OH with the energetically preferred intermediate H(2)PdOCH(2). In the Pd + CH(3)OH reaction, the main products are CH(2)OPd + H(2), and H(2)PdOCH(2) is the energetically predominant intermediate. The intermediates, PdCH(2), H(2) PdCO, and t-HPdCHO are energetically preferred in the PdC + H(2), PdCO + H(2), and H(2)Pd + CO reactions, respectively. Besides, PdO toward methane activation exhibits higher reaction efficiency than the atom Pd and its first-row congener NiO.

Matrix isolation infrared spectroscopic and theoretical study of the reactions of tantalum oxide molecules with methanol

The reactions of tantalum monoxide (TaO) and dioxide (TaO(2)) molecules with methanol in solid neon were investigated by infrared absorption spectroscopy. The ground-state TaO molecule reacted with CH(3)OH in forming the CH(3)OTa(O)H molecule via the hydroxylic hydrogen atom transfer from methanol to the metal center spontaneously on annealing. The observation of the spontaneous reaction is consistent with theoretical predictions that the OH bond activation process is both thermodynamically exothermic and kinetically facile. In contrast, the TaO(2) molecule reacted with CH(3)OH to give primarily the TaO(2)(CH(3)OH) complex, which further rearranged to the CH(3)OTa(O)OH isomer via the hydroxylic hydrogen atom transfer from methanol to one of oxygen atom of metal dioxide upon visible light excitation.

Chemistry with methane: concepts rather than recipes

Four seemingly simple transformations related to the chemistry of methane will be addressed from mechanistic and conceptual points of view: 1) metal-mediated dehydrogenation to form metal carbene complexes, 2) the hydrogen-atom abstraction step in the oxidative dimerization of methane, 3) the mechanisms of the CH(4)→CH(3)OH conversion, and 4) the initial bond scission (C-H vs. O-H) as well as the rate-limiting step in the selective CH(3)OH→CH(2)O oxidation. State-of-the-art gas-phase experiments, in conjunction with electronic-structure calculations, permit identification of the elementary reactions at a molecular level and thus allow us to unravel detailed mechanistic aspects. Where appropriate, these results are compared with findings from related studies in solution or on surfaces.

Formation and characterization of magnesium bisozonide and carbonyl complexes in solid argon

The reactions of magnesium atoms with dioxygen and dioxygen/carbon monoxide mixture have been investigated by matrix isolation infrared absorption spectroscopy. Magnesium atoms react with dioxygen in solid argon to form the inserted MgO(2) molecules under UV excitation, which were previously characterized. Annealing allows the dioxygen molecules to diffuse and to react with MgO(2) and form the magnesium bisozonide complex, Mg(O(3))(2), which is proposed to be coordinated by two argon atoms in solid argon matrix. The Mg(O(3))(2)(Ar)(2) complex is characterized to have two equivalent side-on bonded ozonide ligands with a D(2h) symmetry. The coordinated argon atoms can be replaced by carbon monoxide to give the magnesium bisozonide dicarbonyl complex, Mg(O(3))(2)(CO)(2), a neutral magnesium carbonyl complex with CO binding to the Mg(2+) center.

CO-promoted N(2) adsorption on copper atoms

Reactions of laser-ablated copper atoms with carbon monoxide and dinitrogen in excess argon have been investigated by matrix-isolation infrared spectroscopy. The NNCuCO and (NN)(2)CuCO complexes, as well as copper carbonyls, are formed as reaction products during sample deposition and further annealing whereas no copper dinitrogen complexes were observed. These carbonylcopper dinitrogen complexes are characterized on the basis of the results of the isotopic substitution and the reagent concentration change. Density functional theory calculations of the geometry structures, vibrational frequencies, relative absorption intensities, and isotopic shifts strongly support the experimental assignments. The experimental results reveal promoted adsorption of N(2) on Cu atoms by preadsorbed CO. The theoretical results for reaction characteristics between the coadsorbed CO and N(2) agree with the experimental findings. The joint investigations provide insights with regard to CO and N(2) cooperative adsorption effects and consequent reaction mechanisms.

Water adsorption on platinum dioxide and dioxygen complex: matrix isolation infrared spectroscopic and theoretical study of three PtO(2)-H(2)O complexes

The interactions of water molecule with platinum dioxygen complex and dioxide molecule are investigated by means of matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy and density functional calculations. The platinum atoms reacted with dioxygen to form the previously reported Pt(O(2)) complex. The Pt(O(2)) complex reacted with water molecule to give the Pt(O(2))-H(2)O complex, which was characterized to involve hydrogen bonding between one O atom of Pt(O(2)) and one H atom of H(2)O (structure A). Upon visible light irradiation, the hydrogen bonded Pt(O(2))HOH complex rearranged to another Pt(O(2))-H(2)O isomer (structure B), which involves (O(2))PtOH(2) interaction. The Pt(O(2))-H(2)O complex in structure B can be isomerized to the weakly bound platinum dioxide-water complex (structure C) under UV irradiation.