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Bonthius DJ, Nichols B, Harb H, Mahoney J, Karacay B. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection of the developing brain: critical role of host age. Ann Neurol 2007; 62:356-74. [PMID: 17696127 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is a common human pathogen that causes substantial injury to the developing brain when the infection occurs during pregnancy. However, among children with congenital LCMV infection, there is considerable variability in the site, nature, and severity of neuropathology and in the clinical outcome. We hypothesize that the variability in neuropathology and outcome is due to differences in the gestational timing of LCMV infection. METHODS We utilized an animal model of human congenital LCMV infection, in which developing rat pups were inoculated with LCMV at a series of postnatal ages, including postnatal days 1, 4, 6, 10, 21, 30, and 60. Cellular targets of infection were determined immunohistochemically, viral titers were determined by plaque assay, and pathology was determined by histological analysis, neuronal quantification, and immunostaining for lymphocytic subclasses. RESULTS Host age at the time of infection profoundly affected the cellular targets of infection, maximal viral titers, immune response to the viral infection, and the severity, nature, and location of the neuropathology. All of the pathological changes observed in children with congenital LCMV infection were reproduced in the rat model by infecting the rat pups at different ages. INTERPRETATION The effect of LCMV infection on the developing brain strongly depends on host age at the time of infection. Much of the variability in neuropathology and outcome among children with congenital LCMV infection probably depends on the gestational age at which the infection occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Bonthius
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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52
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Steinman L. A brief history of T(H)17, the first major revision in the T(H)1/T(H)2 hypothesis of T cell-mediated tissue damage. Nat Med 2007; 13:139-45. [PMID: 17290272 DOI: 10.1038/nm1551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 962] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
For over 35 years, immunologists have divided T-helper (T(H)) cells into functional subsets. T-helper type 1 (T(H)1) cells-long thought to mediate tissue damage-might be involved in the initiation of damage, but they do not sustain or play a decisive role in many commonly studied models of autoimmunity, allergy and microbial immunity. A major role for the cytokine interleukin-17 (IL-17) has now been described in various models of immune-mediated tissue injury, including organ-specific autoimmunity in the brain, heart, synovium and intestines, allergic disorders of the lung and skin, and microbial infections of the intestines and the nervous system. A pathway named T(H)17 is now credited for causing and sustaining tissue damage in these diverse situations. The T(H)1 pathway antagonizes the T(H)17 pathway in an intricate fashion. The evolution of our understanding of the T(H)17 pathway illuminates a shift in immunologists' perspectives regarding the basis of tissue damage, where for over 20 years the role of T(H)1 cells was considered paramount.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Steinman
- Interdepartmental Program in Immunology, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Beckman Center for Molecular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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53
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Lipton HL, Liang Z, Hertzler S, Son KN. A specific viral cause of multiple sclerosis: One virus, one disease. Ann Neurol 2007; 61:514-23. [PMID: 17455291 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
"Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease," is heard so often that it is widely accepted as fact by the current generation of students and physicians. Yet, although it is undisputed that multiple sclerosis (MS) is immune mediated, an autoimmune mechanism remains unproven. Immune-mediated tissue damage can also result from viral infections in which the host immune response is directed to viral rather than self proteins, or as a consequence of nonspecific or bystander immune responses that change the local cytokine environment. Increasing evidence suggests that poorly controlled host immune responses account for much of the tissue damage in chronic infections, and it has been postulated that a similar mechanism may underlie many chronic diseases with features suggestive of an infectious causative factor, including MS. A recent study suggesting that oligodendrocyte death accompanied by microglial activation is the primary event in new MS lesion formation, rather than lymphocyte infiltration, could change the current mindset almost exclusively focused on autoimmunity. This review presents the rationale for considering MS a single disease caused by one virus, as well as the anticipated pattern of a persistent central nervous system infection, the application of Koch's postulates to viral discovery in MS as the causative agent, and tissue culture-independent genotypic approaches to viral discovery in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard L Lipton
- Department of Neurology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612-7344, USA.
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54
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Latta M, Mohan K, Issekutz TB. CXCR6 is expressed on T cells in both T helper type 1 (Th1) inflammation and allergen-induced Th2 lung inflammation but is only a weak mediator of chemotaxis. Immunology 2007; 121:555-64. [PMID: 17437534 PMCID: PMC2265962 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02603.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous chemokine receptors are increased in number on T cells in inflamed tissues. Our objective was to examine CXCR6 expression on lymphocytes during immune and inflammatory reactions and its potential for mediating T-cell recruitment. The cDNA for rat CXCR6 was cloned and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to CXCR6 were developed. CXCR6 was present on 4-6% of CD4 and CD8 T cells in blood, normal lymph nodes (LNs) and the spleen, primarily on memory T cells. In vitro antigen re-stimulation of LN T cells from animals with autoimmune arthritis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) increased the proportion of CXCR6(+) T cells to 35-50% and anti-T-cell receptor (TCR) activation to 60-80%. In vivo, after antigen challenge of LNs there was only a small increase in CXCR6(+) T cells on the lymphoblasts in the LNs, and a much higher percentage of T cells were CXCR6(+) in virus-induced peritoneal exudates (approximately 47%) and in allergen-induced lung inflammation (33%). Chemotaxis of CXCR6-expressing inflammatory T cells to CXCL16 was poor, but that to CXCL10 was robust. We conclude that few T cells in normal and antigen-challenged LNs are CXCR6(+), whereas a high proportion of in vitro activated T cells and T cells from inflammatory sites are CXCR6(+), but these cells migrate poorly to CXCL16. This suggests that CXCR6 may contribute to T-cell positioning and activation, rather than recruitment. CXCR6 is also expressed on T cells not only in T helper type 1 (Th1) inflammation (arthritis and EAE) but also, as shown here, in Th2 inflammation, where it is increased after allergen challenge.
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MESH Headings
- Allergens/immunology
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Asthma/immunology
- CHO Cells
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Cricetinae
- Cricetulus
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Flow Cytometry
- Inflammation/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Lymphoid Tissue/immunology
- Male
- Peritonitis/immunology
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred BN
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Receptors, CXCR6
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Latta
- Department of Pediatrics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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55
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56
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57
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RAUCH HC, RAFFEL S. ANTIGEN UPTAKE BY SPECIFICALLY REACTIVE CELLS IN EXPERIMENTAL ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS*. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 122:297-307. [PMID: 14313488 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1965.tb20214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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58
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LEE JM, SCHEINBERG LC, SCHNEIDER HA, EDELMAN FL. CURRENT STATUS OF CELLULAR TRANSFER OF EXPERIMENTAL ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS: A CRITIQUE*. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 122:308-17. [PMID: 14313490 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1965.tb20215.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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59
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60
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61
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Sheremata WA, Minagar A, Alexander JS, Vollmer T. The role of alpha-4 integrin in the aetiology of multiple sclerosis: current knowledge and therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 2006; 19:909-22. [PMID: 16268663 DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200519110-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) has been recognised as a disease since the mid-19th century. The delineation of its CNS pathology, revealing the presence of inflammatory demyelination and relative sparing of axons, was originally interpreted as evidence of infection. Despite many studies, a primary infectious aetiology of MS has not been found. However, the occurrence of acute demyelinating disease following a variety of infections and vaccinations, leading to MS in about a third of cases, provides evidence for the existence of an auto-allergic pathogenesis for the disease. Improved understanding of the role of the blood-brain barrier in protecting the CNS, and the mechanisms by which cells gain entry into the brain and spinal cord has advanced the understanding of MS. Evidence of the central role of the adhesion molecule alpha4beta1-integrin (very late activation antigen-4 [VLA-4]) for lymphocytes in endothelial transmigration into the CNS specifically, has provided a major insight into the pathogenesis of human demyelinating disease and its experimental model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). This finding has led to a new window of therapeutic opportunity in MS. Monoclonal antibodies to VLA-4 abrogate the development of EAE in sensitised animals and may actually reverse its clinical and pathological findings in manifest disease. Natalizumab, one such monoclonal antibody, which is administered intravenously, has been found to be a promising agent in the treatment of MS. Although single doses produced no improvement in the speed or quality of recovery from acute exacerbations of MS in a phase II trial, long-term administration (in phase II and phase III trials) have produced significant benefits with results showing both a marked reduction in the risk of new magnetic resonance imaging lesions and a significant reduction in the risk of exacerbations within 2 months of the initiation of therapy. Phase III double-blinded controlled trials have provided additional evidence of safety and a favourable impact on exacerbation rates over the 1 year of administration. Unfortunately, the success of natalizumab has been curtailed by three cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, which have prompted the manufacturer to voluntary withdraw the drug from the market. An independent review board is currently investigating the safety of the drug to determine whether it should return to the market. The demonstration that selective modulation (blocking) of the adhesion molecule VLA-4 by natalizumab in MS, resembling that observed in experimental disease, represents a major advance in rational therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Sheremata
- Multiple Sclerosis Center, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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62
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63
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Abstract
In the early 1930s, Thomas Rivers and colleagues provided the first evidence that immune cells can attack the brain. Their simple experiments established what is now the most well-studied model of autoimmunity—the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Bar-Or
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Quebec, Montreal, Canada.
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65
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Becanovic K, Jagodic M, Wallström E, Olsson T. Current Gene-Mapping Strategies in Experimental Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Scand J Immunol 2004; 60:39-51. [PMID: 15238072 DOI: 10.1111/j.0300-9475.2004.01462.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Both family-based linkage analyses and population-based association studies have failed to identify disease-regulatory non-human leucocyte antigen genes of importance in multiple sclerosis (MS). Instead, investigators have employed experimental models, which offer major advantages in genetic studies. We summarize the current main methodologies used and the status of both the human and experimental approaches. Why is it important to find genes regulating MS? There is an immense number of cellular and molecular interactions defined in the immunological field and it is very difficult to unravel those that are critical to an inflammatory disease, such as MS, by classical hypothesis-driven research. Unbiased genetics defines evolutionary conserved gene polymorphisms and pathways regulated by these genes, which are central in the pathogenesis. These, in turn, are of interest as therapeutic targets and pharmacogenetic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Becanovic
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Section for Neuroscience Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, CMM L8:04, Karolinska Hospital, SE-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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66
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Chavarria A, Alcocer-Varela J. Is damage in central nervous system due to inflammation? Autoimmun Rev 2004; 3:251-60. [PMID: 15246020 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2003.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2003] [Accepted: 09/28/2003] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to review the inflammatory factors involved in central nervous system (CNS) inflammation and the damage associated to their participation in an inflammatory disease of CNS, multiple sclerosis in humans and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the murine model. Inflammation has an important repairing function, nevertheless frequently in the CNS inflammation is the cause of damage and it does not fulfill this repairing function as it happens in other compartments of the body. The inflammatory response in the CNS involves the participation of different cellular types of the immune system (macrophages, mast cells, T and B lymphocytes, dendritic cells) and resident cells of the CNS (microglia, astrocytes, neurons), adhesion molecules, cytokines and chemokines among other proteic components. During neuroinflammation chemotaxis is an important event in the recruitment of cells to the CNS. The lymphocyte recruitment implies the presence of chemokines and chemokine receptors, the expression of adhesion molecules, the interaction between lymphocytes and the bloodbrain barrier (BBB) endothelium, and finally their passage through the BBB to arrive at the site of inflammation. If this process is not controlled, is prolonged, inflammation loses its repairing function and can be the cause of damage. Usually neuroinflammation has the tendency to decline to damage, which would explain most of the CNS pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Chavarria
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, AP70228, Mexico DF 04510, Mexico
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67
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Abstract
The past few years have seen significant progress towards understanding the mechanisms of immune surveillance and inflammation in the nervous system. In this review, the milestones of scientific discovery in this field are discussed, and the strengths and limitations of the different ways of examining the molecular pathogenesis of neuro-inflammation examined. The review is limited to the inflammatory reactions of the central nervous system that occur in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bradl
- Institute for Brain Research, Department of Neuroimmunology, Vienna, Austria.
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68
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Bø L, Vedeler CA, Nyland H, Trapp BD, Mørk SJ. Intracortical multiple sclerosis lesions are not associated with increased lymphocyte infiltration. Mult Scler 2003; 9:323-31. [PMID: 12926836 DOI: 10.1191/1352458503ms917oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the extent and distribution of lymphocyte infiltration in demyelinated lesions in the cerebral cortex of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Tissue sections from the brain of 10 MS patients and five patients without neurological disease were double labeled for myelin basic protein and the lymphocyte markers CD3, CD4, CD8, CD45RO, and CD20. The highest density of CD3-positive T cells was found in MS white matter lesions (40.4/10 high power fields (hpf)). Fewer T cells were detected in cortical lesions that extended through both white and gray matter (12.1/10 hpf; P < 0.001). The lowest number of T cells was detected in intracortical demyelinated lesions (1.1/10 hpf). This was equal to the lymphocyte density in nondemyelinated cerebral cortex within the same tissue block (1.1/10 hpf) or cerebral cortex in control brains (1.8/10 hpf). A similar distribution was found using the CD4, CD8, and CD45RO markers. CD20-positive B cells were scarce in all specimens examined. These data indicate that areas of intracortical demyelination in chronic MS are not associated with an increased number of lymphocytes, or an altered distribution of lymphocyte subsets, when compared with control areas in MS and control patients. This finding indicates that the extent of lymphocyte infiltration in MS lesions is dependent on lesion location.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bø
- Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
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69
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Rosche B, Kieseier B, Hartung HP, Hemmer B. [New understanding of the immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis]. DER NERVENARZT 2003; 74:654-63. [PMID: 12904867 DOI: 10.1007/s00115-003-1534-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Although the immune system seems to play an important role in its pathogenesis, target antigens are still uncertain and pathways leading to tissue destruction have not been fully elucidated. Recent studies have significantly contributed to better understanding of the disease process and broadened our view on possible scenarios of disease initiation and progression. Here, we review the role of the immune system in the manifestation and evolution of MS and discuss different pathogenetic concepts. We conclude with an outlook on future strategies for identifying the cause of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Rosche
- Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Philipps-Universität Marburg
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70
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Steinman L. Optic neuritis, a new variant of experimental encephalomyelitis, a durable model for all seasons, now in its seventieth year. J Exp Med 2003; 197:1065-71. [PMID: 12732653 PMCID: PMC2193965 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20030320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Steinman
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University Medical Center, Beckman Center B002, Stanford, CA 94305-5429, USA.
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71
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Fujino M, Funeshima N, Kitazawa Y, Kimura H, Amemiya H, Suzuki S, Li XK. Amelioration of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats by FTY720 treatment. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 305:70-7. [PMID: 12649354 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.102.045658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a T-cell-dependent autoimmune disease that reproduces the inflammatory demyelinating pathology of multiple sclerosis (MS). We investigated the efficacy and mechanism of immunosuppression against EAE by administering 2-amino-[2-(4-octylphenyl) ethyl]-1,3-propanediol hydrochloride (FTY720) in Lewis rats immunized with myelin basic protein together with complete Freund's adjuvant. FTY720 treatment almost completely protected the rats against disease. The protection by FTY720 was associated with a dramatic reduction in the number of lymphocytes staining for T-cell receptors in the spinal cord as examined by immunohistochemistry. The mRNA expression of Th1 cytokines interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, and interferon-gamma in the spinal cord was also reduced dramatically as assessed by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Furthermore, lymphocytes isolated from the spleen of FTY720-treated rats were transferred into naive recipient rats against EAE manifestation by reducing both disease incidence and clinical score. These results suggested that the protective anti-inflammatory effect of treatment with FTY720 was, to a large extent, due to the inhibition of encephalitogenic T-cell responses and/or their migration into the central nervous system and may be a potential candidate for use in treating patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Fujino
- Laboratory of Transplantation Immunology, Department of Innovative Surgery, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
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72
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Piraino PS, Yednock TA, Freedman SB, Messersmith EK, Pleiss MA, Vandevert C, Thorsett ED, Karlik SJ. Prolonged reversal of chronic experimental allergic encephalomyelitis using a small molecule inhibitor of alpha4 integrin. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 131:147-59. [PMID: 12458046 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00273-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
CNS leukocytic invasion in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) depends on alpha4beta1 integrin/vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) interactions. A small molecule inhibitor of alpha4beta1 integrin (CT301) was administered to guinea pigs in the chronic phase (>d40) of EAE for 10, 20, 30 or 40 days. CT301 elicited a rapid, significant improvement in the clinical and pathological scores that was maintained throughout the treatment period. A progressive loss of cells in the spinal cord of treated animals confirmed the resolution of inflammation associated with clinical recovery. Therefore, prolonged inhibition of alpha4beta1 integrin caused a sustained reversal of disease pathology in chronic EAE and may be similarly useful in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Piraino
- Department of Physiology, London Health Sciences Center, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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73
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Marty MC, Alliot F, Rutin J, Fritz R, Trisler D, Pessac B. The myelin basic protein gene is expressed in differentiated blood cell lineages and in hemopoietic progenitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:8856-61. [PMID: 12084930 PMCID: PMC124388 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.122079599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin basic proteins (MBP) are major constituents of the myelin sheath of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, respectively. We previously showed that MBP-related transcripts are present in the bone marrow and the immune system. These mRNAs are transcribed from a region called 0', consisting of three exons, located upstream of the classical MBP exons; these three exons belong to the long MBP gene otherwise called "Golli-MBP." The most abundant of these mRNAs, now called HMBP (hemopoietic MBP), encompasses the sequence encoded by the region 0' plus exon 1 and part of intron 1 of the classic MBP gene. Antisera to recombinant HMBP proteins are immunoreactive with proteins of about 26-28 kDa in brain, thymus, and spleen. This report demonstrates that HMBP proteins are present in the vast majority (>95%) of thymic T cells, which express the corresponding transcripts, as do mature T cells from lymph nodes and spleen. HMBP mRNAs and proteins are also manifest in the majority of spleen B lymphocytes and in B cell lines. In addition to lymphoid cells, HMBP proteins are in all types of myeloid lineage cells, i.e., macrophages, dendritic cells, and granulocytes, as well as in megakaryocytes and erythroblasts. Finally, HMBP proteins are present in CD34+ bone marrow cells, and, furthermore, in highly proliferative cultures, these CD34+ cells express HMBP RNAs and proteins. Thus, MBP gene products are present both in the nervous system and in the entire hemopoietic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Marty
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 15 rue de l'Ecole de Médecine 75270 Paris CEDEX 06 France
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74
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Hemmer B, Archelos JJ, Hartung HP. New concepts in the immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurosci 2002; 3:291-301. [PMID: 11967559 DOI: 10.1038/nrn784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 389] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Hemmer
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-Universität, Marburg 35033, Germany
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75
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van der Laan LJW, van der Goes A, Wauben MHM, Ruuls SR, Döpp EA, De Groot CJA, Kuijpers TW, Elices MJ, Dijkstra CD. Beneficial effect of modified peptide inhibitor of alpha4 integrins on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats. J Neurosci Res 2002; 67:191-9. [PMID: 11782963 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
An important event in the pathogenesis of the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS) is the recruitment of lymphocytes and inflammatory macrophages to the central nervous system (CNS). Recruitment requires adhesive interactions between the leukocytes and the microvascular endothelium, perivascular cells, and astrocytes in the CNS parenchyma. Previous studies using an animal model of MS, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), have shown the involvement of the alpha4 integrin VLA-4 (beta4beta1). In the present study, the effect of a modified peptide inhibitor of alpha4 integrins on the clinical course and leukocyte infiltration during EAE is investigated. EAE was either induced actively, by immunizing Lewis rats with whole guinea pig MBP, or passively, by transfer of an MBP-specific T cell line. Treatment with the inhibitor (CS1 ligand mimic) completely prevented both clinical signs and cellular infiltration in passively induced EAE. Peptide treatment of actively induced EAE, which has a more severe disease course than the transfer model, significantly reduced clinical signs although the recruitment of inflammatory cells and induction of MHC class II expression was not prevented. The alpha4 inhibitor did inhibit the adhesion of lymphocytes to primary astrocytes in vitro suggesting a role for astrocyte-leukocyte interactions in the pathogenesis of induced EAE. Astrocytes were found to express an extracellular matrix protein distinct from fibronectin, which shows immune cross-reactivity with the CS1 domain of fibronectin. Our results show that small-molecule inhibitors of alpha4 integrins act therapeutically in EAE possibly by interfering with cell adhesion events involved in this autoimmune disease.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/drug effects
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Astrocytes/drug effects
- Astrocytes/immunology
- Blood-Brain Barrier/drug effects
- Blood-Brain Barrier/immunology
- Cell Adhesion/drug effects
- Cell Adhesion/immunology
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/antagonists & inhibitors
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/immunology
- Cell Communication/drug effects
- Cell Communication/immunology
- Cell Death/drug effects
- Cell Death/immunology
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Central Nervous System/drug effects
- Central Nervous System/immunology
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/drug effects
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/drug therapy
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/metabolism
- Endothelium, Vascular/cytology
- Endothelium, Vascular/drug effects
- Endothelium, Vascular/immunology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/metabolism
- Immunohistochemistry
- Integrin alpha4
- Lymphocytes/drug effects
- Lymphocytes/immunology
- Macrophages/drug effects
- Macrophages/immunology
- Male
- Peptides/pharmacology
- Peptides/therapeutic use
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Receptors, Immunologic/drug effects
- Receptors, Immunologic/immunology
- Signaling Lymphocytic Activation Molecule Family
- Stem Cells/drug effects
- Stem Cells/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc J W van der Laan
- Department of Cell Biology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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76
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von Büdingen HC, Tanuma N, Villoslada P, Ouallet JC, Hauser SL, Genain CP. Immune responses against the myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in experimental autoimmune demyelination. J Clin Immunol 2001; 21:155-70. [PMID: 11403222 DOI: 10.1023/a:1011031014433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) is a surface-exposed antigen of myelin and an important target for autoimmune responses which mediate inflammatory demyelination in the central nervous system. Experimentally, MOG induces strong pathogenic T cell responses in many strains of laboratory animals. Immunological studies in humans also identify MOG as a surprisingly prevalent antigenic molecule among the myelin proteins. In addition, the encephalitogenic properties of MOG are linked to the induction of antibody responses which have been demonstrated to directly promote central nervous system demyelination, a hallmark neuropathological feature in disorders such as human multiple sclerosis. Factors responsible for autoimmunity to MOG likely include genetic influences as well as other mechanisms, which are the subject of intense investigation. This article reviews experimental data currently available on specificity and pathogenic roles of T cell and antibody responses against MOG, which have implications relevant to multiple sclerosis and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C von Büdingen
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco 94143, USA
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77
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Bielekova B, Goodwin B, Richert N, Cortese I, Kondo T, Afshar G, Gran B, Eaton J, Antel J, Frank JA, McFarland HF, Martin R. Encephalitogenic potential of the myelin basic protein peptide (amino acids 83-99) in multiple sclerosis: results of a phase II clinical trial with an altered peptide ligand. Nat Med 2000; 6:1167-75. [PMID: 11017150 DOI: 10.1038/80516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 611] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Myelin-specific T lymphocytes are considered essential in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. The myelin basic protein peptide (a.a. 83-99) represents one candidate antigen; therefore, it was chosen to design an altered peptide ligand, CGP77116, for specific immunotherapy of multiple sclerosis. A magnetic resonance imaging-controlled phase II clinical trial with this altered peptide ligand documented that it was poorly tolerated at the dose tested, and the trial had therefore to be halted. Improvement or worsening of clinical or magnetic resonance imaging parameters could not be demonstrated in this small group of individuals because of the short treatment duration. Three patients developed exacerbations of multiple sclerosis, and in two this could be linked to altered peptide ligand treatment by immunological studies demonstrating the encephalitogenic potential of the myelin basic protein peptide (a.a. 83-99) in a subgroup of patients. These data raise important considerations for the use of specific immunotherapies in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Bielekova
- Neuroimmunology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1400, USA
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78
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van Stipdonk MJ, Willems AA, Plomp AC, van Noort JM, Boog CJ. Tolerance controls encephalitogenicity of alphaB-crystallin in the Lewis rat. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 103:103-11. [PMID: 10696905 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(99)00171-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The myelin-associated protein, alphaB-crystallin, is considered a candidate autoantigen in multiple sclerosis (MS). In the present study, we examined the potential of alphaB-crystallin to induce experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in Lewis rats. Attempts to induce EAE with either bovine, rat or murine alphaB-crystallin or alphaB-crystallin peptides consistently failed. Immunization with either autologous rat or murine alphaB-crystallin did not trigger any antigen-specific T cell response. Immunization with bovine alphaB-crystallin or a synthetic peptide representing the cryptic epitope 49-64 did trigger T cell responses but these failed to crossreact with autologous rat alphaB-crystallin. Examination of lymphoid tissues of the Lewis rat revealed constitutive expression of alphaB-crystallin in thymus, spleen, and peripheral lymphocytes. Our data show that in Lewis rats, constitutive lymphoid expression of alphaB-crystallin is associated with a state of nonresponsiveness to autologous alphaB-crystallin that effectively controls the development of EAE in response to this myelin antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J van Stipdonk
- CLB, Sanquin Blood Supply Foundation, Department of Transplantation Immunology, Academical Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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79
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Inaba Y, Ichikawa M, Koh CS, Inoue A, Itoh M, Kyogashima M, Komiyama A. Suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by dermatan sulfate. Cell Immunol 1999; 198:96-102. [PMID: 10648123 DOI: 10.1006/cimm.1999.1588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effect of dermatan sulfate (DS) on the treatment of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was examined. DS, a sulfated glycosaminoglycan, has been reported to exhibit anticoagulant and fibrinolytic activities. DS treatment (50 mg/kg/day) facilitates recovery from the clinical manifestations of EAE. In this study, the fibrinolytic activity was higher in DS-treated rats than in saline-treated rats. Although the degree of perivascular mononuclear cell infiltration in the spinal cord was not suppressed in DS-treated rats compared to that in saline-treated rats, perivascular fibrin deposition was markedly suppressed in DS-treated rats. These findings suggest that DS would act as an effective therapeutic agent for EAE by preventing fibrin deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Inaba
- Department of Pediatrics, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto, 390-8621, Japan
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80
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Jordan EK, McFarland HI, Lewis BK, Tresser N, Gates MA, Johnson M, Lenardo M, Matis LA, McFarland HF, Frank JA. Serial MR imaging of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis induced by human white matter or by chimeric myelin-basic and proteolipid protein in the common marmoset. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999; 20:965-76. [PMID: 10445431 PMCID: PMC7056255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/1998] [Accepted: 01/22/1999] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in the marmoset was monitored by serial MR imaging to determine correlates to the natural-history MR studies in multiple sclerosis (MS). The relationships of MR-revealed lesions to clinical status and histopathologic findings were also explored. METHODS We induced EAE by subcutaneous inoculation in two marmosets by human white matter (HWM) and in seven marmosets by MP4 (a chimeric recombinant fusion protein of myelin-basic and proteolipid protein) in adjuvant along with intravenous inactivated pertussis vaccine to facilitate the disease process. The HWM-inoculated animals were induced with Freund's adjuvant as the established model of marmoset EAE. The MP4-inoculated animals were induced with either Freund's incomplete adjuvant or TiterMax as part of a preclinical treatment trial. MR imaging was performed at 1.5 T at baseline, and repeated at 1- to 2-week intervals for a period of up to 16 weeks in six EAE-induced marmosets, and intermittently for up to 70 weeks in three EAE-induced and two control marmosets. Proton density- (PD-) and T2-weighted, pre- and postgadopentetate dimeglumine enhancement, T1-weighted, and magnetization transfer (MT) images were obtained. The brains were prepared for histologic evaluation of lesion distribution and counts, characterization of lesions as demyelinating or inflammatory, and histopathologic scoring. The clinical, MR, and pathologic scoring were done on grading systems, and correlated for evaluation. RESULTS White matter (WM) changes after EAE induction were observed first at 9 days in the HWM-induced animals and at 2.5 weeks in the MP4-induced animals, with subsequent week-to-week fluctuations on PD- and T2-weighted images. Contrast-enhancing lesions were not observed in all animals. MR-revealed WM lesions correlated to histopathologic analysis of EAE lesions, measuring from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. The lesion count and extent of demyelination was greater in the HWM-induced animals than in the MP4-induced animals. Some MR-revealed lesions correlated directly to clinical symptoms, but the majority of lesions were clinically silent. CONCLUSION On MR images, lesions in the EAE marmoset model were confined to the WM, and their development, resolution, distribution, and enhancing characteristics fluctuated over the duration of the study. The dynamic presentation of MR-revealed lesions confirms the parallels between EAE in the marmoset and relapsing-remitting MS. Clinical symptoms alone were not representative of ongoing pathologic brain lesions. Therefore, serial MR imaging serves as a very important adjunct to clinical and histologic surveillance of the development of new and the persistence of existing brain lesions in this animal model of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- E K Jordan
- Laboratory of Diagnostic Radiology Research, CC, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1074, USA
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81
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Vroegop SM, Chapman DL, Galinet LA, Decker DE, Ready KA, Brideau RJ, Dunn CJ, Buxser SE. Pharmacology of the biological response modifier bropirimine (PNU-54461) on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1999; 21:391-409. [PMID: 10405874 DOI: 10.1016/s0192-0561(99)00019-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In murine severe experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for the human disease multiple sclerosis (MS), we tested the efficacy of a 5-halo-6-phenyl pyrimidinone compound, bropirimine (PNU-54461). We observed that the compound is active in suppressing EAE when administered orally, a significant pharmacological advantage compared to some current therapies for the treatment of MS. Furthermore, bropirimine was most efficacious when dosing was begun 5-10 days after injection of myelin basic protein, the protein isolated from the central nervous system and used for inducing EAE in our model. This is a period of time following the initial immunological events leading to the disease, when large-scale leukocyte infiltration into the central nervous system begins. Following oral dosing, bropirimine peaked in the blood within 3 h and was cleared to undetectable concentrations within 16-18 h. Despite the pharmacokinetics in the blood, bropirimine was fully efficacious when dosed orally every two or three days. Surprisingly, bropirimine treatment did not result in a statistically significant decrease in leukocyte infiltration into the lower spinal cord, unless the compound was dosed daily at a high concentration. We also observed the concentration and time course of alpha-interferon in blood following oral dosing of bropirimine. The kinetics of interferon in the blood are similar to, but clearly distinguishable from, the pharmacokinetics of bropirimine in the blood. It is not clear whether or not the induction of interferon plays a key role in the efficacy of bropirimine. Nevertheless, the results using bropirimine in EAE suggest that the compound may be useful for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Vroegop
- Discovery Technologies, Pharmacia & Upjohn Inc, Kalamazoo, MI 49007-4940, USA.
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82
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Kollias G, Douni E, Kassiotis G, Kontoyiannis D. On the role of tumor necrosis factor and receptors in models of multiorgan failure, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Immunol Rev 1999; 169:175-94. [PMID: 10450517 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1999.tb01315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The specific role of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)/TNF receptor (TNFR) system in disease pathogenesis still remains an unresolved puzzle. Recent studies in transgenic and knockout animals, where the pathogenic influence of genetically perturbed TNF expression has been evaluated, indicate that several pathways of TNF/TNFR action may contribute independently or in concert to initiate, promote or downregulate disease pathogenesis. Evidently, organ-specific inflammatory or autoimmune pathology may ensue due to sustained activation by TNF of innate immune cells and inflammatory responses, which may consequently lead to tissue damage and to organ-specific chronic pathology. However, more cryptic functions of this molecule may be considered to play a significant part in the development of TNF-mediated pathologies. Direct interference of TNF with the differentiation, proliferation or death of specific pathogenic cell targets may be an alternative mechanism for disease initiation or progression. In addition to these activities, there is now considerable evidence to suggest that TNF may also directly promote or downregulate the adaptive immune response. It is therefore evident that no general scenario may adequately describe the role of TNF in disease pathogenesis. In this article, we aim to place these diverse functions of TNF/TNFRs into context with the development of specific pathology in murine models of multiorgan failure, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kollias
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece.
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83
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Kassiotis G, Bauer J, Akassoglou K, Lassmann H, Kollias G, Probert L. A tumor necrosis factor-induced model of human primary demyelinating diseases develops in immunodeficient mice. Eur J Immunol 1999; 29:912-7. [PMID: 10092095 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-4141(199903)29:03<912::aid-immu912>3.0.co;2-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We have reported previously that in the central nervous system (CNS) local expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) transgenes can trigger the development of oligodendrocyte apoptosis, primary inflammatory demyelination and neurological dysfunction, accompanied by lymphocyte and macrophage infiltration into the CNS. To distinguish between the local effects of transgene-encoded TNF and the potential encephalitogenic effects of immune infiltrates upon CNS disease pathogenesis, we have backcrossed Tg6074 TNF-transgenic mice to mice deficient in CD4, beta2-microglobulin (beta2m), immunoglobulin mu chain (Igmu) or recombination activation gene-1 (Rag-1). TNF was capable of triggering undiminished primary demyelination in all of the immunodeficient mice, in the presence of activated cells of the macrophage/microglial lineage. We conclude that TNF is sufficient to induce primary inflammatory demyelination and neurological deficits even in the absence of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kassiotis
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
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84
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Lyons JA, Zhao ML, Fritz RB. Pathogenesis of acute passive murine encephalomyelitis II. Th1 phenotype of the inducing population is not sufficient to cause disease. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 93:26-36. [PMID: 10378866 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study was designed to assess the pattern of cytokine expression over the course of disease in the central nervous system (CNS) of recipients of an encephalitogenic T-cell clone specific for proteolipid protein (PLP) peptide 139-151. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses of CNS mRNA from samples taken during the onset of acute disease demonstrated upregulation of message for cytokines involved in the recruitment and activation of macrophages (GM-CSF, interleukin (IL)-3, IL-9) and the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and iNOS as well as message for IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)beta. During the recovery stage message for most cytokines was absent, but during relapse inflammatory cytokine messages were again detectable. Message for the accessory molecules B7-2 and CTLA-4 was observed only on the day of onset of acute experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) and at relapse. The messages for these molecules were downregulated at the onset of recovery. These results illustrate the dynamic nature of the immune response during the course of EAE, and support a model of disease in which T-cells are involved in the regulation of disease while a nonspecific inflammatory reaction is responsible for the CNS damage observed during EAE.
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MESH Headings
- Abatacept
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/immunology
- B7-1 Antigen/genetics
- B7-1 Antigen/immunology
- B7-2 Antigen
- CD28 Antigens/genetics
- CD28 Antigens/immunology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Clone Cells
- DNA Primers
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/etiology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Epitopes
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/immunology
- Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/genetics
- Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/immunology
- Immunoconjugates
- Immunophenotyping
- Immunosuppressive Agents/immunology
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/immunology
- Interleukin-10/genetics
- Interleukin-10/immunology
- Interleukin-2/genetics
- Interleukin-2/immunology
- Interleukin-3/genetics
- Interleukin-3/immunology
- Interleukin-4/genetics
- Interleukin-4/immunology
- Interleukin-6/genetics
- Interleukin-6/immunology
- Interleukin-9/genetics
- Interleukin-9/immunology
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/immunology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Th1 Cells/enzymology
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/enzymology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/genetics
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Lyons
- Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, USA.
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85
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MCMASTER PR, LERNER EM, EXUM ED. The relationship of delayed hypersensitivity and circulating antibody to experimental allergic thyroditis in inbred guinea pigs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 113:611-24. [PMID: 13774132 PMCID: PMC2137379 DOI: 10.1084/jem.113.4.611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Strain 13 histocompatible guinea pigs developed allergic thyroiditis after immunization with thyroid extracts derived from the same strain or from other strains of guinea pigs. This thyroiditis appeared as early as 5 days after immunization, and by 7 weeks was uniformly present and generally severe. 7 weeks after immunization, the anti-thyroid antibody titer correlated with the presence and degree of thyroiditis. However, at certain other times after immunization, the titer did not correlate with the thyroiditis. By contrast, all animals with thyroiditis, which were skin-tested with thyroid extract, exhibited delayed hypersensitivity. Moreover, all those which failed to respond with delayed reactions, when skin-tested, had not developed thyroiditis. The present work correlates the presence of experimental allergic thyroiditis with delayed hypersensitivity.
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86
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HARWIN SM, PATERSON PY, DIDAKOW NC. Antibodies against autologous brain in rats with allergic encephalomyelitis. Nature 1998; 189:322-3. [PMID: 13712071 DOI: 10.1038/189322a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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87
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PATERSON PY, HARWIN SM. Suppression of allergic encephalomyelitis in rats by means of antibrain serum. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 117:755-74. [PMID: 13941827 PMCID: PMC2137643 DOI: 10.1084/jem.117.5.755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Rats regularly develop evidence of allergic encephalomyelitis (AE) 2 to 3 weeks following sensitization to nervous tissue plus adjuvant. Independent of the severity of AE which occurs, gradual recovery is the rule and by the 6th to 9th week after sensitization rats appear clinically well and microscopic lesions of AE have virtually disappeared. Pooled serum collected from rats 3 or 6 weeks after sensitization contains complement-fixing (CF) antibrain antibodies. Such pooled serum exerts a striking suppressive influence on development of AE when passively administered to rats actively sensitized to nervous tissue. Serum pools which contain CF antibrain antibody suppress the disease. Serum pools lacking CF antibody do not suppress the disease. Serum containing CF antibrain antibody after treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol no longer fixes complement with brain antigen in vitro and no longer suppresses AE in vivo. The data suggest that transfer of protection against AE by passively administered antibrain rat serum is due to an antibrain antibody, possibly the CF antibodies. The meaning of these findings is discussed in terms of the role(s) of circulating antibrain antibody in the pathogenesis of AE.
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88
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89
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Abstract
Neonatal guinea pigs during the first 2 weeks of life did not indicate the presence of delayed hypersensitivity intradermally, after sensitization with purified soluble antigens in dose levels that induced detectable delayed hypersensitivity in the skin of adults. Although Arthus type allergy was detectable in newborns, circulating antibody frequently preceded its appearance by several days. Passive Arthus reactions were not produced in newborns as readily as in adults. Contact hypersensitivity and allergic encephalomyelitis were induced in newborns, but corneal reactions were not. Total body irradiation with 200 r inhibited antibody formation in newborns, as in adults. In addition, the induction period for anamnestic responses in newborns and the antigen elimination rate were the same as in adults. Passive transfer of delayed hypersensitivity from sensitized newborns to normal adults was accomplished.
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90
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HARWIN SM, PATERSON PY. Antibrain antibodies of the 19S gamma-globulin type in rats with allergic encephalomyelitis. Nature 1998; 194:391-2. [PMID: 13905113 DOI: 10.1038/194391a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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91
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HESS EV, ASHWORTH CT, ZIFF M. Transfer of an autoimmune nephrosis in the rat by means of lymph node cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 115:421-38. [PMID: 13906990 PMCID: PMC2137486 DOI: 10.1084/jem.115.2.421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
An autoimmune nephrosis produced in rats by repeated injections of kidney extract with Freund's adjuvant has been transferred by means of lymph node cells to recipient animals rendered tolerant by neonatal injection with spleen cells from prospective donors. Transfer of the disease was manifested in the recipients by the development of proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hypercholesterolemia,and histological changes. The latter consisted of glomerular epithelial swelling, increase in basement membrane material and the presence of protein droplets in the glomerular and tubular epithelium. Appropriate control experiments were negative. Attempts to transfer with serum were unsuccessful. The transfer described is believed to provide evidence for an immunological mechanism for kidney and adjuvant induced nephrosis in the rat.
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92
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KIBLER RF, BARNES AE. Antibody studies in rabbit encephalomyelitis induced by a water-soluble protein fraction of rabbit cord. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 116:807-25. [PMID: 14032458 PMCID: PMC2137585 DOI: 10.1084/jem.116.6.807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A water-soluble protein fraction of nervous tissue was prepared by extraction of rabbit spinal cord with sodium citrate at pH 4.3. Characterization by nitrogen content and paper electrophoresis showed it to be a mixture of basic proteins. This extract demonstrated encephalitogenic activity when injected into rabbits. The most suitable technique for the measurement of serum antibody to the rabbit cord antigen proved to be the precipitation of antigen-antibody complexes by 40 per cent saturated ammonium sulfate. Antibody could not be demonstrated by the techniques of complement fixation, quantitative precipitation, and Ouchterlony plates. The early appearance of circulating antibody occurred almost exclusively in rabbits that subsequently developed EAE. Specificity of the antibodies for nervous tissue was demonstrated by appropriate blocking and adsorption experiments.
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93
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PERLMANN P, BROBERGER O. In vitro studies of ulcerative colitis. II. Cytotoxic action of white blood cells from patients on human fetal colon cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 117:717-33. [PMID: 13942482 PMCID: PMC2137644 DOI: 10.1084/jem.117.5.717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Freshly isolated fetal human colon cells were labeled with (32)P-orthophosphate or (14)C-amino acids and exposed to white blood cells from children with ulcerative colitis or from healthy controls. Exposure of the colon cells to patients' white cells led to a rapid isotope release, significantly higher than that obtained with normal white cells. After 150 minutes of incubation, 75 per cent of the total isotope present was found in the media of the colitis samples but only 40 per cent in those of the controls. Consistent results were obtained with white blood cells from 14 patients and 18 healthy individuals. Similar results were obtained with either fresh white cells or with white cells aged for 12 to 18 hours and consisting to 60 to 70 per cent of lymphocytes and to 20 to 30 per cent of large mononuclear cells. No specific cytotoxic activity could be conferred onto normal white cells by pretreating them with patients' serum containing antibodies against colon antigen. The cytotoxic action of the patients' white cells was immunologically specific, since no difference from the controls was found in the isotope release when cells from other organs or animals were similarly treated. Preliminary experiments suggested that the patients' white cells could be desensitized by pretreating them with colon extract. For obtaining a significant cytotoxic effect of the patients' white cells, the presence of 10 to 20 per cent of fresh guinea pig or human serum in the incubation medium was required.
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94
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KOPROWSKI H, FERNANDES MV. Autosensitization reaction in vitro. Contactual agglutination of sensitized lymph node cells in brain tissue culture accompanied by destruction of glial elements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 116:467-76. [PMID: 14034719 PMCID: PMC2137632 DOI: 10.1084/jem.116.4.467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lymph node cells were obtained from an inbred strain of Lewis rats injected with guinea pig cord tissue in Freund's adjuvant. These cells, when added to tissue culture monolayers of puppy brain, aggregated on or around the glial elements. This reaction, called contactual agglutination, was followed by the specific destruction of glial cells, leaving cultures consisting only of fibroblasts. No such reaction was noted when lymph node cells obtained either from normal rats or those injected with adjuvant alone were used. Absorption of serum obtained from rats injected with guinea pig cord tissue by non-sensitized lymph node cells made them reactive in brain tissue culture. The contactual agglutination test seems to provide an opportunity for investigation of sensitization reaction in tissue culture systems.
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95
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WAKSMAN BH, ARBOUYS S, ARNASON BG. The use of specific "lymphocyte" antisera to inhibit hypersensitive reactions of the "delayed" type. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 114:997-1022. [PMID: 14004486 PMCID: PMC2180405 DOI: 10.1084/jem.114.6.997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Rabbit antisera against normal guinea pig lymph node, when injected into guinea pigs, produced transient depression of the level of blood lymphocytes. It had no effect on other circulating cellular elements. Repeated injection over several days produced lymphopenia, which became progressively less marked with continued treatment, and clear-cut depletion of small lymphocytes in lymph nodes, whether draining an inoculation site or remote. In guinea pigs treated with lymphocyte antiserum, there was marked suppression of the tuberculin and contact allergic reactions and the "delayed" skin reaction to purified diphtheria toxoid, and a relative suppression of allergic encephalomyelitis and the rejection of first set skin homografts. There was a slight effect on second set graft rejection and no effect on PCA or the reversed passive Arthus reaction. Non-specific reactions to intradermal turpentine or to concentrated dinitrochlorobenzene placed on the skin were moderately reduced. The suppression of these reactions (except allergic encephalomyelitis) was closely correlated with the degree of lymphopenia. Lymphocyte antiserum absorbed with normal blood white cells lost both its lymphopenic effect and its ability to suppress the tuberculin reaction. It is tentatively concluded that a circulating mononuclear cell, probably the small lymphocyte, is the primary reactant in the various types of delayed hypersensitive reactions.
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96
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Bauer J, Bradl M, Hickley WF, Forss-Petter S, Breitschopf H, Linington C, Wekerle H, Lassmann H. T-cell apoptosis in inflammatory brain lesions: destruction of T cells does not depend on antigen recognition. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 1998; 153:715-24. [PMID: 9736022 PMCID: PMC1853020 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65615-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Elimination of inflammatory T cells by apoptosis appears to play an important role in the down-regulation of inflammation in the central nervous system. Here we report that apoptosis of T lymphocytes occurs to a similar extent in different models of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Apoptosis is restricted to cells located in the neuroectodermal parenchyma, thereby leaving T cells present in the brain's connective tissue compartments unharmed. Death of T cells in the parenchyma does not depend on antigen presentation by resident microglial cells or astrocytes. Adoptive transfer experiments with T lymphocytes carrying a specific genetic marker revealed that in the central nervous system these cells are destroyed regardless of their antigen specificity or state of activation. Although many of both antigen-dependent and -independent mechanisms in the induction of T-cell apoptosis may act simultaneously, our results suggest that the nervous system harbors a specific, currently undefined, mechanism that effectively eliminates infiltrating T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bauer
- Institute of Neurology, University of Vienna, Austria
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97
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Lyons JA, Zhao ML, Fritz RB. Pathogenesis of acute passive murine encephalomyelitis I. Importance of host-derived cells as determined by kinetic analysis. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 86:92-103. [PMID: 9655477 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Kinetics of entry into the CNS of donor- and host-derived T-cells during the onset of acute murine EAE induced by the passive transfer of an encephalitogenic PLP(139-151)-specific T-cell clone was investigated. RT-PCR and spectratypic analysis of total RNA recovered from recipient mice demonstrated the presence in the CNS of donor- and host-derived T-cells 24 h post adoptive transfer. Donor-derived T-cells detected in the CNS decreased days 2-6 post transfer while host-derived T-cells persisted during this time. Beginning 3 days before clinical onset, an increase in the CNS of both T-cell populations was observed which persisted through disease onset. Similar analysis performed on recipients of an nonencephalitogenic PLP(139-151)-specific T-clone demonstrated a transient infiltration of donor- and host-derived T-cells beginning 4 days post transfer (dpt) and returning to background levels by day 7 post transfer. Results presented here suggest the importance of host-derived T-cells in the onset of acute passive murine EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Lyons
- Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, USA.
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98
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Willenborg DO, Staykova MA. Approaches to the treatment of central nervous system autoimmune disease using specific neuroantigen. Immunol Cell Biol 1998; 76:91-103. [PMID: 9553781 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.1998.00721.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The ultimate aim in the treatment of autoimmune disease is to restore self-tolerance to the autoantigen(s) in question. In lieu of this ideal result, the conversion of a destructive or pathogenic autoimmune response into one of benign autoimmunity would also be highly desirable. In either case the use of the antigenic epitope, which is the target of the destructive immune response, would ideally be employed so as to give specificity to the protection without the need for long-term immunosuppression. This review describes a number of different approaches using various forms, doses, and routes of injection of specific neuroantigen to inhibit the different clinical varieties of autoimmune encephalomyelitis in a number of animal models; all done with the view to translating the findings into the clinic for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. We conclude that any treatment strategy for multiple sclerosis (MS) must have a number of features: it must be clinically acceptable, specific, long-lasting, require only short-term treatment, able to shunt off ongoing disease, and have the potential to prevent or deal with epitope spreading. Few of the approaches we describe fulfill all of these criteria. We suggest that investigations of new adjunctive agents to be used with a specific antigen be pursued, and that currently the use of chimeric proteins or DNA vaccination with or without the new adjunctives may hold the most hope for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- D O Willenborg
- Neurosciences Research Unit, Canberra Hospital, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
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99
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Parish CR, Hindmarsh EJ, Bartlett MR, Staykova MA, Cowden WB, Willenborg DO. Treatment of central nervous system inflammation with inhibitors of basement membrane degradation. Immunol Cell Biol 1998; 76:104-13. [PMID: 9553782 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.1998.00722.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Currently available anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) and other inflammatory diseases are generally inadequate, with disease progression not being arrested by the treatments and undesirable side effects posing problems. In response to these deficiencies our laboratories have, over the past 10 years, been developing novel drugs that interfere with the entry of leucocytes into inflammatory sites by inhibiting their passage through the subendothelial basement membrane (BM). This review initially summarizes evidence supporting the hypothesis that the subendothelial BM is a major barrier to the accumulation of leucocytes in inflammatory sites. An important point that has emerged is that breaching of the BM is probably a cooperative process, involving activation- and cytokine-induced degradative enzymes contributed by leucocytes, endothelial cells and platelets. The review then discusses the properties of three separate classes of anti-inflammatory compounds we have developed, namely sulfated polysaccharides/oligosaccharides, phosphosugars, and castanospermine (CS), which inhibit the passage of leukocytes through BM. Each drug type appears to prevent BM degradation by a different mechanism. Sulfated polysaccharides/oligosaccharides mediate their anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the endoglycosidase, heparanase, which plays a key role in the solubilization of BM by invading leucocytes. In fact, our studies have highlighted the heparanase enzyme as a major target for future drug development. Phosphosugars probably inhibit inflammation by displacing lysosomal enzymes, which are involved in BM degradation, from cell surface mannose 6-phosphate receptors. This mechanism of expressing degradative enzymes on the cell surface is particularly evident with activated T lymphocytes. On the other hand, CS interferes with appropriate targeting of lysosomal enzymes involved in BM degradation. For reasons which are still unclear, CS specifically inhibits BM degradation by endothelial cells, which results in a characteristic perivascular arrest of leucocytes in inflammatory sites. Overall, our studies have established that inhibitors of subendothelial BM degradation represent viable anti-inflammatory agents. It is hoped that future work will result in the development of a totally new class of highly effective, subtle and non-toxic anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of MS and other inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Parish
- Division of Immunology and Cell Biology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
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100
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E- and P-Selectin Are Not Involved in the Recruitment of Inflammatory Cells Across the Blood-Brain Barrier in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Blood 1997. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v90.11.4459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractIn experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) inflammatory cells cross the endothelial blood-brain barrier (BBB) and gain access to the central nervous system (CNS). Here we show that E- and P-selectin are not involved in the recruitment of inflammatory cells across the BBB. Neither expression of E- nor P-selectin is induced in BBB-forming endothelium at any time after initiation of EAE. Some of the inflammatory cells present in the CNS during EAE express ligands for E- or P-selectin. However, anti–E- and P-selectin antibodies influence neither immigration of inflammatory cells across the BBB nor the development of EAE. In general, suppression of E- and P-selectin expression on BBB endothelium is dependent on factors derived from the CNS microenvironment, eg, astrocytes. Our results suggest that during EAE suppression of E- and P-selectin expression on the BBB provides a CNS-specific mechanism to reduce leukocyte recruitment into the CNS.
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