Iron-based redox switches in biology

Non-mutagenic Suppression of Enterocyte Ferroportin 1 by Chemical Ribosomal Inactivation via p38 Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)-mediated Regulation: EVIDENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEMOCHROMATOSIS

Iron transfer across the basolateral membrane of an enterocyte into the circulation is the rate-limiting step in iron absorption and is regulated by various pathophysiological factors. Ferroportin (FPN), the only known mammalian iron exporter, transports iron from the basolateral surface of enterocytes, macrophages, and hepatocytes into the blood. Patients with genetic mutations in FPN or repeated blood transfusion develop hemochromatosis. In this study, non-mutagenic ribosomal inactivation was assessed as an etiological factor of FPN-associated hemochromatosis in enterocytes. Non-mutagenic chemical ribosomal inactivation disrupted iron homeostasis by regulating expression of the iron exporter FPN-1, leading to intracellular accumulation in enterocytes. Mechanistically, a xenobiotic insult stimulated the intracellular sentinel p38 MAPK signaling pathway, which was positively involved in FPN-1 suppression by ribosomal dysfunction. Moreover, ribosomal inactivation-induced iron accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans as a simplified in vivo model for gut nutrition uptake was dependent on SEK-1, a p38 kinase activator, leading to suppression of FPN-1.1 expression and iron accumulation. In terms of gene regulation, ribosomal stress-activated p38 signaling down-regulated NRF2 and NF-κB, both of which were positive transcriptional regulators of FPN-1 transcription. This study provides molecular evidence for the modulation of iron bioavailability by ribosomal dysfunction as a potent etiological factor of non-mutagenic environmental hemochromatosis in the gut-to-blood axis.

Parkinson's Disease: The Mitochondria-Iron Link

Mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage are conditions often found in damaged brain areas of Parkinson's disease. We propose that a causal link exists between these three events. Mitochondrial dysfunction results not only in increased reactive oxygen species production but also in decreased iron-sulfur cluster synthesis and unorthodox activation of Iron Regulatory Protein 1 (IRP1), a key regulator of cell iron homeostasis. In turn, IRP1 activation results in iron accumulation and hydroxyl radical-mediated damage. These three occurrences-mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage-generate a positive feedback loop of increased iron accumulation and oxidative stress. Here, we review the evidence that points to a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and iron accumulation as early events in the development of sporadic and genetic cases of Parkinson's disease. Finally, an attempt is done to contextualize the possible relationship between mitochondria dysfunction and iron dyshomeostasis. Based on published evidence, we propose that iron chelation-by decreasing iron-associated oxidative damage and by inducing cell survival and cell-rescue pathways-is a viable therapy for retarding this cycle.

Pivotal Role of Iron in the Regulation of Cyanobacterial Electron Transport

Iron-containing metalloproteins are the main cornerstones for efficient electron transport in biological systems. The abundance and diversity of iron-dependent proteins in cyanobacteria makes those organisms highly dependent of this micronutrient. To cope with iron imbalance, cyanobacteria have developed a survey of adaptation strategies that are strongly related to the regulation of photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and other central electron transfer pathways. Furthermore, either in its ferrous form or as a component of the haem group, iron plays a crucial role as regulatory signalling molecule that directly or indirectly modulates the composition and efficiency of cyanobacterial redox reactions. We present here the major mechanism used by cyanobacteria to couple iron homeostasis to the regulation of electron transport, making special emphasis in processes specific in those organisms.

The oxygen reduction pathway and heat shock stress response are both required for Entamoeba histolytica pathogenicity

Several species belonging to the genus Entamoeba can colonize the mouth or the human gut; however, only Entamoeba histolytica is pathogenic to the host, causing the disease amoebiasis. This illness is responsible for one hundred thousand human deaths per year worldwide, affecting mainly underdeveloped countries. Throughout its entire life cycle and invasion of human tissues, the parasite is constantly subjected to stress conditions. Under in vitro culture, this microaerophilic parasite can tolerate up to 5 % oxygen concentrations; however, during tissue invasion the parasite has to cope with the higher oxygen content found in well-perfused tissues (4-14 %) and with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species derived from both host and parasite. In this work, the role of the amoebic oxygen reduction pathway (ORP) and heat shock response (HSP) are analyzed in relation to E. histolytica pathogenicity. The data suggest that in contrast with non-pathogenic E. dispar, the higher level of ORP and HSPs displayed by E. histolytica enables its survival in tissues by diminishing and detoxifying intracellular oxidants and repairing damaged proteins to allow metabolic fluxes, replication and immune evasion.

Mycobacteria, metals, and the macrophage

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a facultative intracellular pathogen that thrives inside host macrophages. A key trait of M. tuberculosis is to exploit and manipulate metal cation trafficking inside infected macrophages to ensure survival and replication inside the phagosome. Here, we describe the recent fascinating discoveries that the mammalian immune system responds to infections with M. tuberculosis by overloading the phagosome with copper and zinc, two metals which are essential nutrients in small quantities but are toxic in excess. M. tuberculosis has developed multi-faceted resistance mechanisms to protect itself from metal toxicity including control of uptake, sequestration inside the cell, oxidation, and efflux. The host response to infections combines this metal poisoning strategy with nutritional immunity mechanisms that deprive M. tuberculosis from metals such as iron and manganese to prevent bacterial replication. Both immune mechanisms rely on the translocation of metal transporter proteins to the phagosomal membrane during the maturation process of the phagosome. This review summarizes these recent findings and discusses how metal-targeted approaches might complement existing TB chemotherapeutic regimens with novel anti-infective therapies.

The low frequency modes of solvated ions and ion pairs in aqueous electrolyte solutions: iron(ii) and iron(iii) chloride

We have investigated the hydration dynamics of solvated iron(ii) and iron(iii) chloride. For this, THz/FIR absorption spectra of acidified aqueous FeCl2 and FeCl3 solutions have been measured in a frequency range of 30-350 cm(-1) (≈1-10 THz). We observe a nonlinear concentration dependence of the absorption, which is attributed to the progressive formation of chloro-complexes of Fe(ii) and Fe(iii), respectively. By principal component analysis of the concentration dependent absorption spectra, we deduced the molar extinction spectra of the solvated species Fe(2+) + 2Cl(-) and FeCl(+) + Cl(-), as well as FeCl(2+) + 2Cl(-) and FeCl2(+) + Cl(-). In addition, we obtain ion association constants log KFeCl2 = -0.88(5) and log KFeCl3 = -0.32(16) for the association of Fe(2+) and Cl(-) to FeCl(+) and the association of FeCl(2+) and Cl(-) to FeCl2(+), respectively. We performed a simultaneous fit of all the effective extinction spectra and their differences, including our previous results of solvated manganese(ii) and nickel(ii) chlorides and bromides. Thereby we were able to assign absorption peaks to vibrational modes of ion-water complexes. Furthermore, we were able to estimate a minimum number of affected water molecules, ranging from ca. 7 in the case of FeCl(+) + Cl(-) to ca. 21 in the case of FeCl(2+) + Cl(-).

Molecular profile and functional characterization of the ferritin H subunit from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus), revealing its putative role in host antioxidant and immune defense

Ferritins are iron binding proteins made out of 24 subunits, involved in iron homeostasis and metabolism in cellular environments. Here, we sought to identify and functionally characterize a one type of subunits of ferritin (ferritin H-like subunit) from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus; RbFerH). The complete coding sequence of RbFerH was 531 bp in length, encoding a 177-amino acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 20.8 kDa. The deduced protein structure possessed the domain architecture characteristic of known ferritin H subunits, including metal ligands for iron binding, a ferroxidase center, and two iron-binding region signatures. As expected, the 5' untranslated region of the RbFerH cDNA sequence contained a putative iron response element region, a characteristic regulatory element involved in its translation. The RbFerH gene comprised 5 exons and 4 introns spanning a 4195 bp region. Overexpressed recombinant RbFerH protein demonstrated prominent Fe(II) ion depriving activity, bacteriostatic properties, and protective effects against oxidative double-stranded DNA damage. Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), we found that RbFerH was expressed ubiquitously in the majority of physiologically important tissues in rock bream. A greater abundance of the mRNA transcripts were detected in blood and liver tissues. Upon administering different microbial pathogens and pathogen-derived mitogens, RbFerH transcription was markedly elevated in the blood of rock bream. Taken together, our findings suggest that RbFerH acts as a potent iron sequestrator in rock bream and may actively participate in antimicrobial as well as antioxidative defense.

Perturbations in small molecule synthesis uncovers an iron-responsive secondary metabolite network in Aspergillus fumigatus

Iron plays a critical role in survival and virulence of the opportunistic pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. Two transcription factors, the GATA-factor SreA and the bZip-factor HapX oppositely monitor iron homeostasis with HapX activating iron acquisition pathways (e.g., siderophores) and shutting down iron consumptive pathways (and SreA) during iron starvation conditions whereas SreA negatively regulates HapX and corresponding pathways during iron sufficiency. Recently the non-ribosomal peptide, hexadehydroastechrome (HAS; a tryptophan-derived iron (III)-complex), has been found important in A. fumigatus virulence. We found that HAS overproduction caused an iron starvation phenotype, from alteration of siderophore pools to regulation of iron homeostasis gene expression including sreA. Moreover, we uncovered an iron dependent secondary metabolism network where both SreA and HapX oppositely regulate multiple other secondary metabolites including HAS. This circuitry links iron-acquisition and consumption pathways with secondary metabolism-thus placing HAS as part of a metabolic feedback circuitry designed to balance iron pools in the fungus and presenting iron availability as one environmental trigger of secondary metabolism.

Iron in multiple sclerosis: roles in neurodegeneration and repair

MRI and histological studies have shown global alterations in iron levels in the brains of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), including increases in the iron stored by macrophages and microglia. Excessive free iron can be toxic, and accumulation of iron in MS has generally been thought to be detrimental. However, iron maintains the integrity of oligodendrocytes and myelin, and facilitates their regeneration following injury. The extracellular matrix, a key regulator of remyelination, might also modulate iron levels. This Review highlights key histological and MRI studies that have investigated changes in iron distribution associated with MS. Potential sources of iron, as well as iron regulatory proteins and the detrimental roles of excessive iron within the CNS, are also discussed, with emphasis on the importance of iron within cells for oxidative metabolism, proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocytes, and myelination. In light of the beneficial and detrimental properties of iron within the CNS, we present considerations for treatments that target iron in MS. Such treatments must balance trophic and toxic properties of iron, by providing sufficient iron levels for remyelination and repair while avoiding excesses that might overwhelm homeostatic mechanisms and contribute to damage.

F-box and leucine-rich repeat protein 5 (FBXL5): sensing intracellular iron and oxygen

Though essential for many vital biological processes, excess iron results in the formation of damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, iron metabolism must be tightly regulated. F-box and leucine-rich repeat protein 5 (FBXL5), an E3 ubiquitin ligase subunit, regulates cellular and systemic iron homeostasis by facilitating iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) degradation. FBXL5 possesses an N-terminal hemerythrin (Hr)-like domain that mediates its own differential stability by switching between two different conformations to communicate cellular iron availability. In addition, the FBXL5-Hr domain also senses O2 availability, albeit by a distinct mechanism. Mice lacking FBXL5 fail to sense intracellular iron levels and die in utero due to iron overload and exposure to damaging levels of oxidative stress. By closely monitoring intracellular levels of iron and oxygen, FBLX5 prevents the formation of conditions that favor ROS formation. These findings suggest that FBXL5 is essential for the maintenance of iron homeostasis and is a key sensor of bioavailable iron. Here, we describe the iron and oxygen sensing mechanisms of the FBXL5 Hr-like domain and its role in mediating ROS biology.

A teleostean counterpart of ferritin M subunit from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus): an active constituent in iron chelation and DNA protection against oxidative damage, with a modulated expression upon pathogen stress

Ferritins are biological iron chelators that can sequestrate excess iron to maintain iron homeostasis in the body. Ferritins basically consist of 2 types of subunits, designated as H and L. However, another new subunit, ferritin "M" which possesses characteristic features of both the H and L subunits, was recently identified in lower vertebrates, mostly in fish. In this study, a ferritin M-like subunit from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) (RbFerM) was characterized at the molecular level, and its transcriptional profile was analyzed in healthy fish, as well as in pathogen- and mitogen-stimulated fish. Furthermore, its functional properties were evaluated using the recombinant protein. The complete coding sequence of RbFerM was 528 bp in length, encoding a 176-amino acid peptide with a calculated molecular mass of 20 kDa. In silico analysis of RbFerM revealed that it has features similar to both the mammalian ferritin subunits, H and L. Phylogenetic analysis depicted the higher evolutionary proximity of RbFerM with its fish counterparts. Quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis detected a ubiquitous transcriptional profile of RbFerM in selected tissues of rock bream, in which more pronounced expression was observed in blood and liver tissues. Significant transcriptional inductions of RbFerM were detected in liver tissues upon lipopolysaccharides (LPS), Edwardsiella tarda, Streptococcus iniae, and rock bream irido virus (RBIV) exposures in time-course immune-challenge experiments. The purified recombinant protein of RbFerM demonstrated detectable iron chelating activity that varied with the temperature. Moreover, the recombinant RbFerM rendered a detectable protection effect against iron (II) and H2O2-mediated DNA damage.

Environmental heme-based sensor proteins: implications for understanding bacterial pathogenesis

SIGNIFICANCE

Heme is an important prosthetic group required in a wide array of functions, including respiration, photosynthesis, metabolism, O(2) transport, xenobiotic detoxification, and peroxide production and destruction, and is an essential cofactor in proteins such as catalases, peroxidases, and members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily. Importantly, bacterial heme-based sensor proteins exploit the redox chemistry of heme to sense environmental gases and the intracellular redox state of the cell.

RECENT ADVANCES

The bacterial proteins FixL (Rhizobium ssp.), CooA (Rhodospirillum rubrum), EcDos (Escherichia. coli), RcoM (Burkholderia xenovorans), and particularly Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) DosS and DosT have emerged as model paradigms of environmental heme-based sensors capable of detecting multiple gases including NO, CO, and O(2).

CRITICAL ISSUES

How the diatomic gases NO, CO, or O(2) bind to heme iron to generate Fe-NO, Fe-CO, and Fe-O(2) bonds, respectively, and how the oxidation of heme iron by O(2) serves as a sensing mechanism that controls the activity of key proteins is complex and largely unclear. This is particularly important as many bacterial pathogens, including Mtb, encounters three overlapping host gases (NO, CO, and O(2)) during human infection.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Heme is an important prosthetic group that monitors the microbe's internal and external surroundings to alter signal transduction or enzymatic activation. Modern expression, metabolomic and biochemical technologies combined with in vivo pathogenesis studies should provide fresh insights into the mechanism of action of heme-based redox sensors.

Protein nanotubes, channels and cages

Proteins are the work-horses of life and excute the essential processes involved in the growth and repair of cells. These roles include all aspects of cell signalling, metabolism and repair that allow living things to exist. They are not only chemical catalysts and machine components, they are also structural components of the cell or organism, capable of self-organisation into strong supramolecular cages, fibres and meshes. How proteins are encoded genetically and how they are sythesised in vivo is now well understood, and for an increasing number of proteins, the relationship between structure and function is known in exquisite detail. The next challenge in bionanoscience is to adapt useful protein systems to build new functional structures. Well-defined natural structures with potential useful shapes are a good starting point. With this in mind, in this chapter we discuss the properties of natural and artificial protein channels, nanotubes and cages with regard to recent progress and potential future applications. Chemistries for attaching together different proteins to form superstructures are considered as well as the difficulties associated with designing complex protein structures ab initio.

RNA modifications by oxidation: a novel disease mechanism?

The past decade has provided exciting insights into a novel class of central (small) RNA molecules intimately involved in gene regulation. Only a small percentage of our DNA is translated into proteins by mRNA, yet 80% or more of the DNA is transcribed into RNA, and this RNA has been found to encompass various classes of novel regulatory RNAs, including, e.g., microRNAs. It is well known that DNA is constantly oxidized and repaired by complex genome maintenance mechanisms. Analogously, RNA also undergoes significant oxidation, and there are now convincing data suggesting that oxidation, and the consequent loss of integrity of RNA, is a mechanism for disease development. Oxidized RNA is found in a large variety of diseases, and interest has been especially devoted to degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimer disease, in which up to 50-70% of specific mRNA molecules are reported oxidized, whereas other RNA molecules show virtually no oxidation. The iron-storage disease hemochromatosis exhibits the most prominent general increase in RNA oxidation ever observed. Oxidation of RNA primarily leads to strand breaks and to oxidative base modifications. Oxidized mRNA is recognized by the ribosomes, but the oxidation results in ribosomal stalling and dysfunction, followed by decreased levels of functional protein as well as the production of truncated proteins that do not undergo proper folding and may result in protein aggregation within the cell. Ribosomal dysfunction may also signal apoptosis by p53-independent pathways. There are very few reports on interventions that reduce RNA oxidation, one interesting observation being a reduction in RNA oxidation by ingestion of raw olive oil. High urinary excretion of 8-oxo-guanosine, a biomarker for RNA oxidation, is highly predictive of death in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetics; this demonstrates the clinical relevance of RNA oxidation. Taken collectively the available data suggest that RNA oxidation is a contributing factor in several diseases such as diabetes, hemochromatosis, heart failure, and β-cell destruction. The mechanism involves free iron and hydrogen peroxide from mitochondrial dysfunction that together lead to RNA oxidation that in turn gives rise to truncated proteins that may cause aggregation. Thus RNA oxidation may well be an important novel contributing mechanism for several diseases.

Conformational changes in the novel redox sensor protein HbpS studied by site-directed spin labeling and its turnover in dependence on the catalase-peroxidase CpeB

AIMS

To establish conditions to study the oligomeric assembly of heme-binding protein (HbpS) in solution by applying the tools of site-directed spin labeling combined with pulse electron paramagnetic resonance (SDSL EPR) spectroscopy, as well as to analyze redox stress-based conformational changes in HbpS subunits within the oligomer in solution. In vivo elucidation of molecular mechanisms that control the downregulation of the novel redox-system HbpS-SenS-SenR.

RESULTS

Using a set of specifically generated HbpS mutants, and SDSL EPR spectroscopy, we show the octomeric assembly of HbpS in solution, and demonstrate that iron-mediated stress induces conformational changes in HbpS subunits within the octamer. We further demonstrate that the catalase-peroxidase CpeB protects HbpS from hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-mediated oxidative attack in vivo. Moreover, chromosomal inactivation of cpeB results in an enhanced sensitivity of the mutant to redox-cycling compounds.

INNOVATION

SDSL EPR has been used in this work for the first time to monitor redox-mediated conformational changes in a redox-sensing protein in solution. This work substantially explains redox-dependent dynamics in HbpS at the atomic level, and presents novel molecular mechanisms supporting downregulation of a signaling cascade.

CONCLUSION

Iron-mediated stress induces movements of subunits within the HbpS octomeric assembly. We suggest a motion of the C-terminal α-helix toward the preceding helical segment. These events upregulate the activity of the HbpS-SenS-SenR system, in which HbpS acts as an accessory element. The mycelia-associated CpeB, under the control of HbpS-SenS-SenR, protects the extracellular HbpS from oxidation in vivo. Thus, de novo synthesized HbpS proteins downregulate the HbpS-SenS-SenR signaling cascade.

Iron-sulfur clusters: biogenesis, molecular mechanisms, and their functional significance

Iron-sulfur clusters [Fe-S] are small, ubiquitous inorganic cofactors representing one of the earliest catalysts during biomolecule evolution and are involved in fundamental biological reactions, including regulation of enzyme activity, mitochondrial respiration, ribosome biogenesis, cofactor biogenesis, gene expression regulation, and nucleotide metabolism. Although simple in structure, [Fe-S] biogenesis requires complex protein machineries and pathways for assembly. [Fe-S] are assembled from cysteine-derived sulfur and iron onto scaffold proteins followed by transfer to recipient apoproteins. Several predominant iron-sulfur biogenesis systems have been identified, including nitrogen fixation (NIF), sulfur utilization factor (SUF), iron-sulfur cluster (ISC), and cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly (CIA), and many protein components have been identified and characterized. In eukaryotes ISC is mainly localized to mitochondria, cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly to the cytosol, whereas plant sulfur utilization factor is localized mainly to plastids. Because of this spatial separation, evidence suggests cross-talk mediated by organelle export machineries and dual targeting mechanisms. Although research efforts in understanding iron-sulfur biogenesis has been centered on bacteria, yeast, and plants, recent efforts have implicated inappropriate [Fe-S] biogenesis to underlie many human diseases. In this review we detail our current understanding of [Fe-S] biogenesis across species boundaries highlighting evolutionary conservation and divergence and assembling our knowledge into a cellular context.

High-mobility group box 1, oxidative stress, and disease

Oxidative stress and associated reactive oxygen species can modify lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, and induce the mitochondrial permeability transition, providing a signal leading to the induction of autophagy, apoptosis, and necrosis. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein, a chromatin-binding nuclear protein and damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, is integral to oxidative stress and downstream apoptosis or survival. Accumulation of HMGB1 at sites of oxidative DNA damage can lead to repair of the DNA. As a redox-sensitive protein, HMGB1 contains three cysteines (Cys23, 45, and 106). In the setting of oxidative stress, it can form a Cys23-Cys45 disulfide bond; a role for oxidative homo- or heterodimerization through the Cys106 has been suggested for some of its biologic activities. HMGB1 causes activation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and increased reactive oxygen species production in neutrophils. Reduced and oxidized HMGB1 have different roles in extracellular signaling and regulation of immune responses, mediated by signaling through the receptor for advanced glycation end products and/or Toll-like receptors. Antioxidants such as ethyl pyruvate, quercetin, green tea, N-acetylcysteine, and curcumin are protective in the setting of experimental infection/sepsis and injury including ischemia-reperfusion, partly through attenuating HMGB1 release and systemic accumulation.

Heavy chain ferritin siRNA delivered by cationic liposomes increases sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents

Approximately half of all gliomas are resistant to chemotherapy, and new therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to treat this cancer. We hypothesized that disrupting iron homeostasis in glioma cells could block tumor growth, based on an acute requirement for high levels of iron to meet energy requirements associated with their rapid growth. Ferritin is best known as an intracellular iron storage protein, but it also localizes to tumor cell nuclei where it seems to protect DNA from oxidative damage and to promote transcription. In this study, we hypothesize that silencing the H-ferritin (heavy chain ferritin) gene could increase tumor sensitivity to chemotoxins. To test this hypothesis, H-ferritin siRNA was delivered to several human cancer cell lines by using cationic liposomes (C-liposome). H-ferritin siRNA decreased protein expression by 80% within 48 hours, and this decrease was associated with more than 50% decrease in the LD(50) for DNA-alkylating agent carmustine (BCNU), which is commonly used to treat glioma in clinic. In a subcutaneous mouse model of human glioma, intratumoral injections of liposomes containing H-ferritin siRNA reduced the effective dose of BCNU needed for tumor suppression by more than 50%. A plasmid supercoil relaxation assay showed that H-ferritin specifically and directly protected DNA from BCNU treatment. H-ferritin siRNA additionally seemed to increase apoptosis in glioma cells in vitro upon H-ferritin knockdown. Overall, our results illustrate how silencing H-ferritin can effectively sensitize tumors to chemotherapy and also show the ability of C-liposomes to serve as a novel in vivo delivery tool for siRNAs.

A possible role for secreted ferritin in tissue iron distribution

Ferritin is known as a well-conserved iron detoxification and storage protein that is found in the cytosol of many prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. In insects and worms, ferritin has evolved into a classically secreted protein that transports iron systemically. Mammalian ferritins are found intracellularly in the cytosol, as well as in the nucleus, the endo-lysosomal compartment and the mitochondria. Extracellular ferritin is found in fluids such as serum and synovial and cerebrospinal fluids. We recently characterized the biophysical properties, secretion mechanism and cellular origin of mouse serum ferritin, which is actively secreted by a non-classical pathway involving lysosomal processing. Here, we review the data to support a hypothesis that intracellular and extracellular ferritin may play a role in intra- and intercellular redistribution of iron.

The many faces of the octahedral ferritin protein

Iron is an essential trace nutrient required for the active sites of many enzymes, electron transfer and oxygen transport proteins. In contrast, to its important biological roles, iron is a catalyst for reactive oxygen species (ROS). Organisms must acquire iron but must protect against oxidative damage. Biology has evolved siderophores, hormones, membrane transporters, and iron transport and storage proteins to acquire sufficient iron but maintain iron levels at safe concentrations that prevent iron from catalyzing the formation of ROS. Ferritin is an important hub for iron metabolism because it sequesters iron during times of iron excess and releases iron during iron paucity. Ferritin is expressed in response to oxidative stress and is secreted into the extracellular matrix and into the serum. The iron sequestering ability of ferritin is believed to be the source of the anti-oxidant properties of ferritin. In fact, ferritin has been used as a biomarker for disease because it is synthesized in response to oxidative damage and inflammation. The function of serum ferritin is poorly understood, however serum ferritin concentrations seem to correlate with total iron stores. Under certain conditions, ferritin is also associated with pro-oxidant activity. The source of this switch from anti-oxidant to pro-oxidant has not been established but may be associated with unregulated iron release from ferritin. Recent reports demonstrate that ferritin is involved in other aspects of biology such as cell activation, development, immunity and angiogenesis. This review examines ferritin expression and secretion in correlation with anti-oxidant activity and with respect to these new functions. In addition, conditions that lead to pro-oxidant conditions are considered.

Hypoxic induction of human erythroid-specific δ-aminolevulinate synthase mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor 1

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF1) is a heterodimeric basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that regulates many key genes. δ-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS) catalyzes the first and rate-limiting reaction in the heme biosynthetic pathway. In this study, we show that hypoxia-induced expression of erythroid-specific ALAS2 is mediated by HIF1 in erythroid cells. Under hypoxic conditions, significantly increased ALAS2 mRNA and protein levels were detected in K562 cells and erythroid induction cultures of CD34+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Enforced HIF1α expression increased the level of ALAS2 expression, while HIF1α knockdown by RNA interference decreased the level of ALAS2 expression. In silico analysis revealed three potential hypoxia-response elements (HREs) that are located 611, 621, and 741 bp downstream of the ALAS2 gene. The results from reporter gene and mutation analysis suggested that these elements are necessary for a maximal hypoxic response. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and polymerase chain reaction showed that the HREs could be recognized and bound by HIF1α in vivo. These results demonstrate that the upregulation of ALAS2 during hypoxia is directly mediated by HIF1. We hypothesize that HIF1-mediated ALAS2 upregulation promotes erythropoiesis to satisfy the needs of an organism under hypoxic conditions. This may be accomplished via increased heme levels and an interaction between ALAS2 and erythropoietin.

DNA-mediated charge transport in redox sensing and signaling

The transport of charge through the DNA base-pair stack offers a route to carry out redox chemistry at a distance. Here we describe characteristics of this chemistry that have been elucidated and how this chemistry may be utilized within the cell. The shallow distance dependence associated with these redox reactions permits DNA-mediated signaling over long molecular distances in the genome and facilitates the activation of redox-sensitive transcription factors globally in response to oxidative stress. The long-range funneling of oxidative damage to sites of low oxidation potential in the genome also may provide a means of protection within the cell. Furthermore, the sensitivity of DNA charge transport to perturbations in base-pair stacking, as may arise with base lesions and mismatches, may be used as a route to scan the genome for damage as a first step in DNA repair. Thus, the ability of double-helical DNA in mediating redox chemistry at a distance provides a natural mechanism for redox sensing and signaling in the genome.

Biological redox switches

Research over the last decade has substantially advanced our understanding of cellular redox chemistry and introduced new terms to redox signaling and biological redox switches. It emerges that redox switching affects a plethora of biological processes and seems to be necessary to counterbalance oxidative stress and guarantee cellular survival in oxidative conditions. Despite intensive studies, the mechanisms of redox switching and its consequences are poorly understood, which points towards an extremely complex nature of these phenomena. Indeed, in contrast to classical signalling cascades, cellular redox signaling seems to affect the whole cellular redox environment and a large number of different redox switches. A majority of biological redox switches rely on the oxidation of thiol group(s) of cysteine residue(s); however, thiolates also bind transition metal ions like Zn(II), Cu(I), and iron, and these metal-thiolate motifs also function as redox switches. It follows that a deeper understanding of redox signalling and redox switches could be achieved by a multidisciplinary approach combining advances in the redox chemistry of sulphur, the chemistry of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, as well as the bioinorganic chemistry of metal complexes. Many of these aspects are reviewed in the current forum issue on biological redox switches with the aim to promote the understanding of cellular redox phenomena at system biology level.