Characterization of In Vivo Effects of Platelet-Rich Plasma and Biodegradable Gelatin Hydrogel Microspheres on Degenerated Intervertebral Discs

Enhancing intervertebral disc repair and regeneration through biology: platelet-rich plasma as an alternative strategy

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a common orthopedic disease associated with mechanical changes that may result in significant pain. Current treatments for IDD mainly depend on conservative therapies and spinal surgeries that are only able to relieve the symptoms but do not address the cause of the degeneration and even accelerate the degeneration of adjacent segments. This has prompted research to improve our understanding of the biology of intervertebral disc healing and into methods to enhance the regenerative process. Recently, biological therapies, including active substances, gene therapy and tissue engineering based on certain cells, have been attracting more attention in the field of intervertebral disc repair and regeneration. Early selection of suitable biological treatment is an ideal way to prevent or even reverse the progressive trend of IDD. Growth factors have been enjoying more popularity in the field of regeneration of IDD and many have been proved to be effective in reversing the degenerative trend of the intervertebral disc. Identification of these growth factors has led to strategies to deliver platelet-derived factors to the intervertebral disc for regeneration. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is the latest technique to be evaluated for promoting intervertebral disc healing. Activation of the PRP leads to the release of growth factors from the α-granules in the platelet cytoplasm. These growth factors have been associated with the initiation of a healing cascade that leads to cellular chemotaxis, angiogenesis, synthesis of collagen matrix, and cell proliferation. This review describes the current understanding of IDD and related biological therapeutic strategies, especially the promising prospects of PRP treatment. Future limitations and perspectives of PRP therapy for IDD are also discussed.

Antioxidative nanofullerol prevents intervertebral disk degeneration

Compelling evidence suggests that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a pivotal role in disk degeneration. Fullerol nanoparticles prepared in aqueous solution have been demonstrated to have outstanding ability to scavenge ROS. In this report, in vitro and in vivo models were used to study the efficacy of fullerol in preventing disk degeneration. For in vitro experiments, a pro-oxidant H₂O₂ or an inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1β was employed to induce degenerated phenotypes in human nucleus pulposus cells encapsulated in alginate beads, and fullerol was added in the culture medium. For the animal study, an annulus-puncture model with rabbit was created, and fullerol was injected into disks. It was shown that cytotoxicity and cellular ROS level induced by H₂O₂ were significantly diminished by fullerol. IL-1β-induced nitric oxide generation in culture medium was suppressed by fullerol as well. Gene-profile and biochemical assays showed that fullerol effectively reversed the matrix degradation caused by either H₂O₂ or IL-1β. The animal study delineated that intradiskal injection of fullerol prevented disk degeneration, increasing water and proteoglycan content and inhibiting ectopic bone formation. These results suggest that antioxidative fullerol may have a potential therapeutic application for disk degeneration.

Modeling the role of IGF-1 on extracellular matrix biosynthesis and cellularity in intervertebral disc

The insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a well-known anabolic agent for intervertebral disc (IVD), promoting both proteoglycan (PG) biosynthesis and cell proliferation. Accordingly, it is believed that IGF-1 may play a central role in IVD homeostasis. Furthermore, the exogenous administration of IGF-1 has been proposed as a possible therapeutic strategy for disc degeneration. The objectives of this study were to develop a new computational framework for describing the mechanisms regulating IGF-mediated homeostasis in IVD, and to apply this numerical tool for investigating the effectiveness of exogenous administration of IGF-1 for curing disc degeneration. A diffusive-reactive model was developed for describing competitive binding of IGF-1 to its binding proteins and cell surface receptors, with the latter reaction initiating the intracellular signaling mechanism leading to PG production and cell proliferation. Because PG production increases cell metabolic rate, and cell proliferation increases nutritional demand, nutrients transport and metabolism were also included into the model, and co-regulated, together with IGF-1, IVD cellularity. The sustainability and the effectiveness of IGF-mediated anabolism were investigated for conditions of pathologically insufficient nutrient supply, and for the case of exogenous administration of IGF-1 to degenerated IVD. Results showed that pathological nutrients deprivation, by decreasing cellularity, caused a reduction of PG biosynthesis. Also, exogenous administration of IGF-1 was only beneficial in well-nourished regions of IVD, and exacerbated cell mortality in malnourished regions. These findings remark the central role of nutrition in IVD health, and suggest that adequate nutritional supply is paramount for achieving a successful IGF-based therapy for disc degeneration.

Platelet-rich plasma induces annulus fibrosus cell proliferation and matrix production

PURPOSE

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) contains growth factors and creates a 3D structure upon clotting; PRP or platelet lysate (PL) might be considered for annulus fibrosus (AF) repair.

METHODS

Bovine AF cells were cultured with 25% PRP, 50% PRP, 25% PL, 50% PL, or 10% FBS. After 2 and 4 days, DNA, glycosaminoglycan (GAG), and mRNA levels were analyzed. Histology was performed after injection of PRP into an AF defect in a whole disc ex vivo.

RESULTS

By day 4, significant increases in DNA content were observed in all treatment groups. All groups also showed elevated GAG synthesis, with highest amounts at 50% PL. Collagen I and II expression was similar between groups; aggrecan, decorin, and versican expression was highest at 25% PL. Injection of PRP into the AF defect resulted in an increased matrix synthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Platelet-rich preparations increased the matrix production and cell number and may therefore be considered to promote AF repair.

Molecular and genetic advances in the regeneration of the intervertebral disc

Background:

Owing to the debilitating nature of degenerative disc disease (DDD) and other spine pathologies, significant research has been performed with the goal of healing or regenerating the intervertebral disc (IVD). Structural complexity, coupled with low vascularity and cellularity, make IVD regeneration an extremely challenging task.

Methods:

Tissue engineering-based strategies utilize three components to enhance tissue regeneration; scaffold materials to guide cell growth, biomolecules to enhance cell migration and differentiation, and cells (autologous, or allogeneic) to initiate the process of tissue formation. Significant advances in IVD regeneration have been made utilizing these tissue engineering strategies.

Results:

The current literature demonstrates that members of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) superfamily are efficacious in the regeneration of an anabolic response in the IVD and to facilitate chondrogenic differentiation. Gene therapy, though thwarted by safety concerns and the risk of ectopic transfection, has significant potential for a targeted and sustained regenerative response. Stem cells in combination with injectable, biocompatible, and biodegradable scaffolds in the form of hydrogels can differentiate into de novo IVD tissue and facilitate regeneration of the existing matrix. Therapies that address both anabolism and the inherent catabolic state of the IVD using either direct inhibitors or broad-spectrum inhibitors show extensive promise.

Conclusion:

This review article summarizes the genetic and molecular advances that promise to play an integral role in the development of new strategies to combat DDD and promote healing of injured discs.

Platelet-rich plasma effects on degenerative disc disease: analysis of histology and imaging in an animal model

Study design: Randomized controlled animal trial.

Objectives: To analyze the early and late phase effects of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injection into and around the damaged intervertebral disc using an animal model, and to evaluate the needle puncture technique in creating a degenerative disc model.

Methods: The L4-L5 intervertebral disc of 18 adult Sprague-Dawley rats was injured with a 21-gauge needle. Animals received an immediate injection of PRP, or a delayed injection of PRP 2 weeks postinjury, or no further intervention (sham) (n = 6/group). Six uninjured controls were used. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed for a control at time 0 and each group at 4 weeks postinjury, this allowed resolution of inflammation and an accurate assessment of healing. Specimens were collected from immediate PRP group at 2 and 4 weeks postinjury, and the delayed PRP group at 4 and 6 weeks postinjury. The sham and control specimens were collected at 2, 4, and 6 weeks postinjury. Each disc was sectioned and analyzed subjectively for overall structure, cellularity, and water content (utilizing MRI). Disc height was measured using descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey post hoc analysis. It was presumed both groups injected with PRP would have better outcomes than the sham group.

Results: The sham group had clear degenerative changes with loss of organizational structure, empty space, fibrous tissue, and inflammatory cells, indicating needle puncture leads to degeneration. The PRP treated groups had fibers that were damaged with empty spaces and inflammatory cells. However, there was maintenance of the ring structure and the nucleus appeared to have a healthy central portion. Overall, both PRP - treated groups retained more normal morphologic features, contained fewer inflammatory cells, and had higher fluid content on MRI; however the effect was more pronounced in the immediate injection group. The disc height was significantly different in the sham and immediate injection group at the 4-week interval.

Conclusions: This percutaneous needle puncture technique is an effective method for creating a degenerative disc model without posterior destabilization of the spine. The administration of PRP has a protective effect on damaged discs in the acute and delayed injection settings representing clinical treatment with PRP in the early versus late stages of the degenerative process. It appears that earlier intervention in the disease process would be more beneficial than PRP treatment of already severely degenerated discs.

Effect of autologous platelet-rich plasma-releasate on intervertebral disc degeneration in the rabbit anular puncture model: a preclinical study

INTRODUCTION

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is a fraction of plasma in which several growth factors are concentrated at high levels. The active soluble releasate isolated following platelet activation of PRP (PRP-releasate) has been demonstrated to stimulate the metabolism of IVD cells in vitro. The in vivo effect of PRP-releasate on degenerated IVD remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the reparative effects of autologous PRP-releasate on degenerated intervertebral discs (IVDs).

METHODS

To induce disc degeneration, New Zealand white rabbits (n = 12) received anular puncture in two noncontiguous discs. Autologous PRP and PPP (platelet-poor plasma) were isolated from fresh blood using two centrifugation techniques. Four weeks after the initial puncture, releasate isolated from clotted PPP or PRP (PPP- or PRP-releasate), or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; control) was injected into the punctured discs. Disc height, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) T2-mapping and histology were assessed.

RESULTS

Anular puncture produced a consistent disc narrowing within four weeks. PRP-releasate induced a statistically significant restoration of disc height (PRP vs. PPP and PBS, P<0.05). In T2-quantification, the mean T2-values of the nucleus pulposus (NP) and anulus fibrosus (AF) of the discs were not significantly different among the three treatment groups. Histologically, the number of chondrocyte-like cells was significantly higher in the discs injected with PRP-releasate compared to that with PBS.

CONCLUSIONS

The administration of active PRP-releasate induced a reparative effect on rabbit degenerated IVDs. The results of this study suggest that the use of autologous PRP-releasate is safe and can lead to a clinical application for IVD degeneration.

Tissue engineering approaches to degenerative disc disease--a meta-analysis of controlled animal trials

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this systematic review was to assess cell/biomaterial treatments of degenerative disc disease in controlled animal trails. The primary endpoints were restoration of disc height and T2 signal intensity.

METHOD

PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) were searched for studies reporting on the use of tissue engineering treatments (cells/biomaterials/cells and biomaterials) for degenerative disc disease treatments in a controlled trial. Publication bias was assessed graphically using funnel plots and Egger's regression. Data were grouped by follow-up duration - early (<4 weeks), intermediate (4-12 weeks) and late (>12 weeks), and weighted mean differences (WMD) were calculated using DerSimonian-Laird Random Effect models.

RESULTS

Thirteen papers, published between 2004 and 2011, were included in this study. In comparison with the injured disc, all three treatments showed a positive effect in disc height, but none of the treatments restored disc height compared to the healthy disc. Overall, there seemed to be a better effect on disc height restoration for the treatment with cells and biomaterials. None of the treatments could achieve the same T2 signal intensity as the healthy disc, and compared to the injured disc, only the treatment with cells and biomaterials showed consistently better results.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of an injured/degenerating disc with cells, cells plus biomaterial or biomaterial alone has a potential for at least a partial regeneration of the disc. However, so far, none of the treatments is able to effectively restore the properties of a healthy disc.

Regenerating nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disc using biodegradable nanofibrous polymer scaffolds

Low back pain is a leading health problem in the United States, which is most often resulted from nucleus pulposus (NP) degeneration. To date, the replacement of degenerated NP relies entirely on mechanical devices. However, a biological NP replacement implant is more desirable. Here, we report the regeneration of NP tissue using a biodegradable nanofibrous (NF) scaffold. Rabbit NP cells were seeded on the NF scaffolds to regenerate NP-like tissue both in vitro and in a subcutaneous implantation model. The NP cells on the NF scaffolds proliferated faster than those on control solid-walled (SW) scaffolds in vitro. Significantly more extracellular matrix (ECM) production (glycosaminoglycan and type II collagen) was found on the NF scaffolds than on the control SW scaffolds. The constructs were then implanted in the caudal spine of athymic rats for up to 12 weeks. The tissue-engineered NP could survive, produce functional ECM, remain in place, and maintain the disc height, which is similar to the native NP tissue.

Enhancement of osteogenic differentiation of human adipose derived stem cells by the controlled release of platelet lysates from hybrid scaffolds produced by supercritical fluid foaming

A new generation of scaffolds capable of acting not only as support for cells but also as a source of biological cues to promote tissue regeneration is currently a hot topic of in bone Tissue Engineering (TE) research. The inclusion of growth factor (GF) controlled release functionalities in the scaffolds is a possible strategy to achieve such goal. Platelet Lysate (PL) is an autologous source of GFs, providing several bioactive agents known to act on bone regeneration. In this study, chitosan-chondroitin sulfate nanoparticles loaded with PL were included in a poly(D,L-lactic acid) foam produced by supercritical fluid foaming. The tridimensional (3D) structures were then seeded with human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) and cultured in vitro under osteogenic stimulus. The osteogenic differentiation of the seeded hASCs was observed earlier for the PL-loaded constructs, as shown by the earlier alkaline phosphatase peak and calcium detection and stronger Runx2 expression at day 7 of culture, in comparison with the control scaffolds. Osteocalcin gene expression was upregulated in presence of PL during all culture period, which indicates an enhanced osteogenic induction. These results suggest the synergistic effect of PL and hASCs in combinatory TE strategies and support the potential of PL to increase the multifunctionality of the 3D hybrid construct for bone TE applications.

Fabrication of a Layered Microstructured Polymeric Microspheres as a Cell Carrier for Nucleus Pulposus Regeneration

This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of nanostructured 3D poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) constructs, which are loaded with dexamethasone (DEX) and growth factor embedded hepaiin/poly(L-lysine) nanoparticles by a layer-by-layer system, to serve as an effective scaffold for nucleus pulposus (NP) tissue engineering. Our results demonstrated that the microsphere constructs were capable of simultaneously releasing basic fibroblast growth factor and DEX with approximately zero-order kinetics. The dual bead microspheres showed no cytotoxicity, and promoted the proliferation of the rat mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs) by lactate dehydrogenase assay and CCK-8 assay. After 4 weeks of culture in vitro, the rMSCs- scaffold hybrids contained significantly higher levels of sulfated GAG/DNA and type-II collagen than the control samples. Moreover, quantity real-time PCR analysis revealed that the expression of disc-matrix proteins, including type-II collagen, aggrecan and versican, in the rMSCs-scaffold hybrids was significantly higher than the control group, whereas the expression of osteogenic differentiation marker type-I collagen was decreased. Taken together, these data indicate that the heparin bound bFGF-coated and DEX-loaded PLGA microsphere constructs is an effective bioactive scaffold for the regeneration of NP tissue.

Enhanced angiogenesis by multiple release of platelet-rich plasma contents and basic fibroblast growth factor from gelatin hydrogels

The objective of this study is to evaluate the angiogenic effects induced by biodegradable gelatin hydrogel granules incorporating mixed platelet-rich plasma (PRP) growth factor mixture (PGFM) and bioactive basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). The PRP was prepared by a double-spinning technique for isolating animal bloods, followed by treatment with different concentrations of calcium chloride (CaCl(2)) solution. The CaCl(2) solution treatment activated the platelets of PRP, allowing the release of various growth factors, such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β(1), and epithelial growth factor (EGF). In the PRP treated with different CaCl(2) solutions, high amounts of representative platelet growth factor, PDGF-BB, VEGF, EGF, and TGF-β(1) were detected in the CaCl(2) concentrations of 1, 2, and 4 wt.% compared with higher or lower ones. The PRP treated was impregnated into gelatin hydrogel granules freeze-dried at 37°C for 1h, and then the percentage of PGFM desorbed from the gelatin hydrogel granules was evaluated. The percentages of PDGF-BB, VEGF, EGF, and TGF-β(1) desorbed tended to decrease with decreasing CaCl(2) concentration. Taken together, the CaCl(2) concentration to activate PRP for PGFM release was fixed at 2 wt.%. In vitro release tests demonstrated that the PGFM was released from the gelatin hydrogel granules with time. For the gelatin hydrogels incorporating PGFM and bFGF, the time profile of PDGF-BB or bFGF release was in good correspondence with that of gelatin hydrogel degradation. The gelatin hydrogel granules incorporating mixed PGFM and bFGF were prepared and intramuscularly injected to a mouse leg ischemia model to evaluate the angiogenic effects in terms of histological and laser Doppler perfusion imaging examinations. As controls, hydrogel granules incorporating bFGF, PGFM, and platelet-poor plasma were used for the angiogenic evaluation. The number of blood vessels newly formed and the percentage of anti-α-smooth muscle actin antibody-positive cells increased around ischemic sites injected with the gelatin hydrogel granules incorporating mixed PGFM and bFGF, in marked contrast to other control groups. The blood reperfusion level of ischemic tissues was enhanced by the hydrogel granules incorporating mixed PGFM and bFGF, whereas no enhancement was observed for other groups. It is concluded that the dual-release system of PGFM and bFGF from gelatin hydrogel granules shows promise as a method to enhance angiogenic effects.

Hydrogels in acellular and cellular strategies for intervertebral disc regeneration

Low back pain is an extremely common illness syndrome that causes patient suffering and disability and requires urgent solutions to improve the quality of life of these patients. Treatment options aimed to regenerate the intervertebral disc (IVD) are still under development. The cellular complexity of IVD, and consequently its fine regulatory system, makes it a challenge to the scientific community. Biomaterials-based therapies are the most interesting solutions to date, whereby tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TE&RM) strategies are included. By using such strategies, i.e., combining biomaterials, cells, and biomolecules, the ultimate goal of reaching a complete integration between native and neo-tissue can be achieved. Hydrogels are promising materials for restoring IVD, mainly nucleus pulposus (NP). This study presents an overview of the use of hydrogels in acellular and cellular strategies for intervertebral disc regeneration. To better understand IVD and its functioning, this study will focus on several aspects: anatomy, pathophysiology, cellular and biomolecular performance, intrinsic healing processes, and current therapies. In addition, the application of hydrogels as NP substitutes will be addressed due to their similarities to NP mechanical properties and extracellular matrix. These hydrogels can be used in cellular strategies when combined with cells from different sources, or in acellular strategies by performing the functionalization of the hydrogels with biomolecules. In addition, a brief summary of therapies based on simple injection for primary biological repair will be examined. Finally, special emphasis will focus on reviewing original studies reporting on the use of autologous cells and biomolecules such as platelet-rich plasma and their potential clinical applications.

Investigation of different cell types and gel carriers for cell-based intervertebral disc therapy, in vitro and in vivo studies

Biological treatment options for the repair of intervertebral disc damage have been suggested for patients with chronic low back pain. The aim of this study was to investigate possible cell types and gel carriers for use in the regenerative treatment of degenerative intervertebral discs (IVD). In vitro: human mesenchymal cells (hMSCs), IVD cells (hDCs), and chondrocytes (hCs) were cultivated in three gel types: hyaluronan gel (Durolane®), hydrogel (Puramatrix®), and tissue-glue gel (TISSEEL®) in chondrogenic differentiation media for 9 days. Cell proliferation and proteoglycan accumulation were evaluated with microscopy and histology. In vivo: hMSCs or hCs and hyaluronan gel were co-injected into injured IVDs of six minipigs. Animals were sacrificed at 3 or 6 months. Transplanted cells were traced with anti-human antibodies. IVD appearance was visualized by MRI, immunohistochemistry, and histology. Hyaluronan gel induced the highest cell proliferation in vitro for all cell types. Xenotransplanted hMSCs and hCs survived in porcine IVDs for 6 months and produced collagen II in all six animals. Six months after transplantation of cell/gel, pronounced endplate changes indicating severe IVD degeneration were observed at MRI in 1/3 hC/gel, 1/3 hMSCs/gel and 1/3 gel only injected IVDs at MRI and 1/3 hMSC/gel, 3/3 hC/gel, 2/3 gel and 1/3 injured IVDs showed positive staining for bone mineralization. In 1 of 3 discs receiving hC/gel, in 1 of 3 receiving hMSCs/gel, and in 1 of 3 discs receiving gel alone. Injected IVDs on MRI results in 1 of 3 hMSC/gel, in 3 of 3 hC/gel, in 2 of 3 gel, and in 1 of 3 injured IVDs animals showed positive staining for bone mineralization. The investigated hyaluronan gel carrier is not suitable for use in cell therapy of injured/degenerated IVDs. The high cell proliferation observed in vitro in the hyaluronan could have been a negative factor in vivo, since most cell/gel transplanted IVDs showed degenerative changes at MRI and positive bone mineralization staining. However, this xenotransplantation model is valuable for evaluating possible cell therapy strategies for human degenerated IVDs.

Emerging technologies for molecular therapy for intervertebral disk degeneration

Intervertebral disks are biologically regulated by the maintenance of a balance between the anabolic and catabolic activities of disk cells. Therapeutic agents, initially evaluated using in vitro studies on disk cells and explants, have been used as intradiscal injections in preclinical settings to test in vivo efficacy. These include anabolic growth factors, other biostimulatory agents, and antagonistic agents against matrix-degrading enzymes and cytokines. Additional work is needed to identify patient populations, using methods such as MRI, and to better understand the mechanism of healing. Clinical trials are underway for a few of these agents and other promising candidates are on the horizon.

Intervertebral disk degeneration and emerging biologic treatments

Although understanding of the biologic basis of intervertebral disk (IVD) degeneration is rapidly advancing, the unique IVD environment presents challenges to the development and delivery of biologic treatments. Acceleration of cellular senescence and apoptosis in degenerative IVDs and the depletion of matrix proteins have prompted the development of treatments based on replacing IVD cells using various cell sources. However, this strategy has not been tested in animal models. IVD degeneration and associated pain have led to interest in pathologic innervation of the IVD and ultimately to the development of percutaneous devices to ablate afferent nerve endings in the posterior annulus. Degeneration leads to changes in the expression of matrix protein, cytokines, and proteinases. Injection of growth factors and mitogens may help overcome these degenerative changes in IVD phenotype, and these potential treatments are being explored in animal studies. Gene therapy is an elegant method to address changes in protein expression, but efforts to apply this technology to IVD degeneration are still at early stages.