Chromosomal G-dark bands determine the spatial organization of centromeric heterochromatin in the nucleus

Gene expression and nuclear architecture during development and differentiation

Development requires a precise program of gene expression to be carried out. Much work has focussed on the regulatory networks that control gene expression, for example in response to external cues. However, it is important to recognize that these regulatory events take place within the physical context of the nucleus, and that the physical position of a gene within the nuclear volume can have strong influences on its regulation and interactions. The first part of this review will summarize what is currently known about nuclear architecture, that is, the large-scale three-dimensional arrangement of chromosome loci within the nucleus. The remainder of the review will examine developmental processes from the point of view of the nucleus.

Context-dependent transcription: all politics is local

An organism ultimately reflects the coordinate expression of its genome. The misexpression of a gene can have catastrophic consequences for an organism, yet the mechanics of transcription is a local phenomenon within the cell nucleus. Chromosomal and nuclear position often dictate the activity of a specific gene. Transcription occurs in territories and in discrete localized foci within these territories. The proximity of a gene or trans-acting factor to heterochromatin can have profound functional significance. The organization of heterochromatin changes with cell development, thus conferring temporal changes on gene activity. The protein-protein interactions that engage the trans-acting factor also contribute to context-dependent transcription. Multi-protein assemblages known as enhanceosomes govern gene expression by local committee thus dictating regional transcription factor function. Local DNA architecture can prescribe enhancesome membership. The local bending of the double helix, typically mediated by architectural transcription factors, is often critical for stabilizing enhanceosomes formed from trans-acting proteins separated over small and large distances. The recognition element to which a transcription factor binds is of functional significance because DNA may act as an allosteric ligand influencing the conformation and thus the activity of the transactivation domain of the binding protein, as well as the recruitment of other proteins to the enhanceosome. Here, we review and attempt to integrate these local determinants of gene expression.

Biogenesis and nuclear export of ribosomal subunits in higher eukaryotes depend on the CRM1 export pathway

The production of ribosomes constitutes a major biosynthetic task for cells. Eukaryotic small and large ribosomal subunits are assembled in the nucleolus and independently exported to the cytoplasm. Most nuclear export pathways require RanGTP-binding export receptors. We analyzed the role of CRM1, the export receptor for leucine-rich nuclear export signals (NES), in the biogenesis of ribosomal subunits in vertebrate cells. Inhibition of the CRM1 export pathway led to a defect in nuclear export of both 40S and 60S subunits in HeLa cells. Moreover, the export of newly made ribosomal subunits in Xenopus oocytes was efficiently and specifically competed by BSA-NES conjugates. The CRM1 dependence of 60S subunit export suggested a conserved function for NMD3, a factor proposed to be a 60S subunit export adaptor in yeast. Indeed, we observed that nuclear export of human NMD3 (hNMD3) is sensitive to leptomycin B (LMB), which inactivates CRM1. It had, however, not yet been demonstrated that Nmd3 can interact with CRM1. Using purified recombinant proteins we have shown here that hNMD3 binds to CRM1 directly, in a RanGTP-dependent manner, by way of a C-terminal NES sequence. Our results suggest that the functions of CRM1 and NMD3 in ribosomal subunit export are conserved from yeast to higher eukaryotes.

The 3D structure of human chromosomes in cell nuclei

The spatial arrangement of some genetic elements relative to chromosome territories and in parallel with the cell nucleus was investigated in human lymphocytes. The structure of the chromosome territories was studied in chromosomes containing regions (clusters) of highly expressed genes (HSA 9, 17) and those without such clusters (HSA 8, 13). In chromosomes containing highly expressed regions, the elements pertaining to these regions were found close to the centre of the nucleus on the inner sides of chromosome territories; those pertaining to regions with low expression were localized close to the nuclear membrane on the opposite sides of the territories. In chromosomes with generally low expression (HSA 8, 13), the elements investigated were found symmetrically distributed over the territories. Based on the investigations of the chromosome structure, the following conclusions are suggested: (1) Chromosome territories have a non-random internal 3D structure with defined average mutual positions between elements. For example, RARalpha, TP53 and Iso-q of HSA 17 are nearer to each other than they are to the HSA 17 centromere. (2) The structure of a chromosome territory reflects the number and chromosome location of clusters of highly expressed genes. (3) Chromosome territories behave to some extent as solid bodies: if the territory is found closer to the nuclear centre, the individual genetic elements of this chromosome are also found, on average, closer the centre of the nucleus. (4) The positions of centromeres are, on average, nearer to the fluorescence weight centre of the territory (FWCT) than to genes. (5) Active genes are not found near the centromeres of their own territory. A simple model of the structure of chromosome territory is proposed.

Interaction in vitro of type III intermediate filament proteins with supercoiled plasmid DNA and modulation of eukaryotic DNA topoisomerase I and II activities

To further characterize the interaction of cytoplasmic intermediate filament (cIF) proteins with supercoiled (sc)DNA, and to support their potential function as complementary nuclear matrix proteins, the type III IF proteins vimentin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and desmin were analyzed for their capacities to interact with supercoiled plasmids containing a bent mouse gamma-satellite insert or inserts capable of non-B-DNA transitions into triplex, Z, and cruciform DNA, that is, DNA conformations typically bound by nuclear matrices. While agarose gel electrophoresis revealed a rough correlation between the superhelical density of the plasmids and their affinity for cIF proteins as well as cIF protein-mediated protection of the plasmid inserts from S1 nucleolytic cleavage, electron microscopy disclosed binding of the cIF proteins to DNA strand crossovers in the plasmids, in accordance with their potential to interact with both negatively and positively supercoiled DNA. In addition, the three cIF proteins were analyzed for their effects on eukaryotic DNA topoisomerases I and II. Possibly because cIF proteins interact with the same plectonemic and paranemic scDNA conformations also recognized by topoisomerases, but select the major groove of DNA for binding in contrast to topoisomerases that insert into the minor groove, the cIF proteins were able to stimulate the enzymes in their supercoil-relaxing activity on both negatively and positively supercoiled plasmids. The stimulatory effect was considerably stronger on topoisomerase I than on topoisomerase II. Moreover, cIF proteins assisted topoisomerases I and II in overwinding plasmid DNA with the formation of positive supercoils. Results obtained with the N-terminal head domain of vimentin harboring the DNA binding region and terminally truncated vimentin proteins indicated the involvement of both protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions in these activities. Based on these observations, it seems conceivable that cIF proteins participate in the control of the steady-state level of DNA superhelicity in the interphase nucleus in conjunction with such topoisomerase-controlled processes as DNA replication, transcription, recombination, maintenance of genome stability, and chromosome condensation and segregation.

Order and disorder in the nucleus

Fluorescence in situ hybridization combined with three-dimensional microscopy has shown that chromosomes are not randomly strewn throughout the nucleus but are in fact fairly well organized, with different loci reproducibly found in different regions of the nucleus. At the same time, increasingly sophisticated methods to track and analyze the movements of specific chromosomal loci in vivo using four-dimensional microscopy have revealed that chromatin undergoes extensive Brownian motion. However, the diffusion of interphase chromatin is constrained, implying that chromosomes are physically anchored within the nucleus. This constraint on diffusion is the result of interactions between chromatin and structural elements within the nucleus, such as nuclear pores or the nuclear lamina. The combination of defined positioning with constrained diffusion has a strong impact on interactions between chromosomal loci, and appears to explain the tendency of certain chromosome rearrangements to occur during the development of cancer.

The contribution of nuclear compartmentalization to gene regulation

Recent developments in live-cell imaging are challenging our stereotyped view of the fixed cell nucleus. The emerging picture is that nuclear processes may rely on a constant flow of molecules between dynamic compartments created by relatively immobile binding or assembly sites. This article discusses current views on the origins of nuclear compartments and their roles in gene expression.