Cdc42 controls the dilation of the exocytotic fusion pore by regulating membrane tension

Endocytic membrane turnover at the leading edge is driven by a transient interaction between Cdc42 and GRAF1

Changes in cell morphology require coordination of plasma membrane turnover and cytoskeleton dynamics, processes that are regulated by Rho GTPases. Here, we describe how a direct interaction between the Rho GTPase Cdc42 and the GTPase-activating protein (GAP) GRAF1 (also known as ARHGAP26), facilitates rapid cell surface turnover at the leading edge. Both Cdc42 and GRAF1 were required for fluid-phase uptake and regulated the generation of transient GRAF1-coated endocytic carriers, which were distinct from clathrin-coated vesicles. GRAF1 was found to transiently assemble at discrete Cdc42-enriched punctae at the plasma membrane, resulting in a corresponding decrease in the microdomain association of Cdc42. However, Cdc42 captured in its active state was, through a GAP-domain-mediated interaction, localised together with GRAF1 on accumulated internal structures derived from the cell surface. Correlative fluorescence and electron tomography microscopy revealed that these structures were clusters of small membrane carriers with defective endosomal processing. We conclude that a transient interaction between Cdc42 and GRAF1 drives endocytic turnover and controls the transition essential for endosomal maturation of plasma membrane internalised by this mechanism.

Summary: A transient interaction between Cdc42 and GRAF1 drives endocytic turnover at the leading edge, and controls the transition essential for endosomal maturation of plasma membrane internalised by this mechanism.

Membrane tension and membrane fusion

Diverse cell biological processes that involve shaping and remodeling of cell membranes are regulated by membrane lateral tension. Here we focus on the role of tension in driving membrane fusion. We discuss the physics of membrane tension, forces that can generate the tension in plasma membrane of a cell, and the hypothesis that tension powers expansion of membrane fusion pores in late stages of cell-to-cell and exocytotic fusion. We propose that fusion pore expansion can require unusually large membrane tensions or, alternatively, low line tensions of the pore resulting from accumulation in the pore rim of membrane-bending proteins. Increase of the inter-membrane distance facilitates the reaction.

Resolving single membrane fusion events on planar pore-spanning membranes

Even though a number of different in vitro fusion assays have been developed to analyze protein mediated fusion, they still only partially capture the essential features of the in vivo situation. Here we established an in vitro fusion assay that mimics the fluidity and planar geometry of the cellular plasma membrane to be able to monitor fusion of single protein-containing vesicles. As a proof of concept, planar pore-spanning membranes harboring SNARE-proteins were generated on highly ordered functionalized 1.2 μm-sized pore arrays in Si₃N₄. Full mobility of the membrane components was demonstrated by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Fusion was analyzed by two color confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy in a time resolved manner allowing to readily distinguish between vesicle docking, intermediate states such as hemifusion and full fusion. The importance of the membrane geometry on the fusion process was highlighted by comparing SNARE-mediated fusion with that of a minimal SNARE fusion mimetic.