Dietary Polar Lipids and Cognitive Development: A Narrative Review

Whole Goat Milk as a Source of Fat and Milk Fat Globule Membrane in Infant Formula

Cow milk is the most common dairy milk and has been extensively researched for its functional, technological and nutritional properties for a wide range of products. One such product category is infant formula, which is the most suitable alternative to feed infants, when breastfeeding is not possible. Most infant formulas are based on cow milk protein ingredients. For several reasons, consumers now seek alternatives such as goat milk, which has increasingly been used to manufacture infant, follow-on and young child formulas over the last 30 years. While similar in many aspects, compositional and functional differences exist between cow and goat milk. This offers the opportunity to explore different formulations or manufacturing options for formulas based on goat milk. The use of whole goat milk as the only source of proteins in formulas allows levels of milk fat, short and medium chain fatty acids, sn-2 palmitic acid, and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) to be maximised. These features improve the composition and microstructure of whole goat milk-based infant formula, providing similarities to the complex human milk fat globules, and have been shown to benefit digestion, and cognitive and immune development. Recent research indicates a role for milk fat and MFGM on digestive health, the gut–brain axis and the gut–skin axis. This review highlights the lipid composition of whole goat milk-based infant formula and its potential for infant nutrition to support healthy digestion, brain development and immunity. Further work is warranted on the role of these components in allergy development and the advantages of goat milk fat and MFGM for infant nutrition and health.

Brain Fuel Utilization in the Developing Brain

During pregnancy and infancy, the human brain is growing extremely fast; the brain volume increases significantly, reaching 36, 72, and 83% of the volume of adults at 2-4 weeks, 1 year, and 2 years of age, respectively, which is essential to establish the neuronal networks and capacity for the development of cognitive, motor, social, and emotional skills that will be continually refined throughout childhood and adulthood. Such dramatic changes in brain structure and function are associated with very large energetic demands exceeding by far those of other organs of the body. It has been estimated that during childhood the brain may account for up to 60% of the body basal energetic requirements. While the main source of energy for the adult brain is glucose, it appears that it is not sufficient to sustain the dramatic metabolic demands of the brain during its development. Recently, it has been proposed that this energetic challenge is solved by the ability of the brain to use ketone bodies (KBs), produced from fatty acid oxidation, as a complement source of energy. Here, we first describe the main cellular and physiological processes that drive brain development along time and how different brain metabolic pathways are engaged to support them. It has been assumed that the majority of energetic substrates are used to support neuronal activity and signal transmission. We discuss how glucose and KBs are metabolized to provide the carbon backbones used to synthesize lipids, nucleic acid, and cholesterol, which are indispensable building blocks of neuronal cell proliferation and are also used to establish and refine brain connectivity through synapse formation/elimination and myelination. We conclude that glucose and KBs are not only important to support the energy needs of the brain under development, but they are also essential substrates for the biosynthesis of macromolecules underlying structural brain growth and reorganization. We emphasize that glucose and fatty acids supporting the production of KBs are provided in complex food matrices, such as breast milk, and understanding how their availability impacts the brain will be key to promote adequate nutrition to support brain metabolism and, therefore, optimal brain development.

Rudanella paleaurantiibacter sp. nov., Isolated from Activated Sludge

A Gram-stain-negative, orange-colored bacterium, designated HX-22-17^T, was isolated from activated sludge of an agricultural chemical plant in Maanshan, Anhui province, China (118° 52' E 31° 68' N). The strain was strictly aerobic, non-endospore forming, non-motile, and ellipse. Growth of the strain was observed at 16-42 °C (optimum between 25 and 30 °C) at pH 6.0-9.0 (optimum at pH 7.0) and with 0-6.0% (w/v) NaCl (optimum at 1.0%). 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed that the strain was most closely related to Rudanella lutea KACC 12603^T (99.5% similarity). The predominant cellular fatty acids were summed feature 3 (C_16:1ω7c and/or C_16:1ω6c), iso-C_15:0, and anteiso-C_15:0. The major polar lipids included posphatidylethanolamine (PE), aminolipid (AL), and phospholipids (PL). The genomic DNA G+C content of the strain was 54.1 mol%. The ANI and dDDH values obtained between the genomes of HX-22-17^T and R. lutea KACC 12603^T were 89.3% and 39.3%, respectively. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic, and genotypic data clearly showed that strain HX-22-17^T represents a novel species of the genus Rudanella, for which the name R. paleaurantiibacter sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is HX-22-17^T (=KCTC 72656^T = CCTCC AB 2019347^T).

Exploring In Vivo Dynamics of Bovine Milk Derived Gangliosides

Gangliosides are glycosphingolipids present in mammalian cell membranes, playing important structural and functional roles. Human studies on the health benefits of gangliosides are increasing, but knowledge gaps regarding ganglioside analysis exist. The study aimed to investigate blood sample type (serum/plasma), storage conditions, diurnal, day-to-day variation and acute effects of consuming bovine-derived gangliosides on circulating monosialylated gangliosides. Seventy-one women (18–40 yrs, 20–≤30.0 kg/m²) were enrolled and 61 completed the intervention. They visited the clinic three times following overnight fasting. Serum/plasma gangliosides were analyzed over 2 h (visit-1), 8 h (visit-2) and 8 h following either zero or high ganglioside meals (visit-3). Samples stored at −20 °C and −70 °C were analyzed at 3-, 6-, 12- and 18-months. Plasma and serum GM3-gangliosides did not differ, plasma GM3 did not change diurnally, from day-to-day, in response to a high vs. low ganglioside meal or after 7-days low ganglioside vs. habitual diet (P > 0.05). GM3 concentrations were lower in samples stored at −70 °C vs. −20 °C from 6-months onwards and decreased over time with lowest levels at 12- and 18-months stored at −70 °C. In conclusion, either serum/plasma stored at −20- or −70 °C for up to 6 months, are acceptable for GM3-ganglioside analysis. Blood samples can be collected at any time of the day and participants do not have to be in the fasted state.

Physicians' Understanding of Nutritional Factors Determining Brain Development and Cognition in the Middle East and Africa

PURPOSE

Proper nutrition is essential for brain development during infancy, contributing to the continued development of cognitive, motor, and socio-emotional skills throughout life. Considering the insufficient published data in the Middle East and North Africa, experts drafted a questionnaire to assess the opinions and knowledge of physicians on the impact of nutrition on brain development and cognition in early life.

METHODS

The questionnaire consisted of two parts: The first focused on the responders' demographic and professional characteristics and the second questioned the role of nutrition in brain development and cognition. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize respondents' characteristics and their responses to questions.

RESULTS

A total of 1,500 questionnaires were distributed; 994 physicians responded. The majority of the surveyed physicians (64.4%) felt that nutrition impacts brain development in early childhood (0-4 years), with almost 90% of physicians agreeing/strongly agreeing that preventing iron, zinc, and iodine deficiency would improve global intelligence quotient. The majority of physicians (83%) agreed that head circumference was the most important measure of brain development. The majority of physicians (68.9%) responded that the period from the last trimester until 18 months postdelivery was crucial for brain growth and neurodevelopment, with 76.8% believing that infants breast-fed by vegan mothers have an increased risk of impaired brain development.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that practicing physicians significantly agree that nutrition plays an important role in brain and cognitive development and function in early childhood, particularly during the last trimester until 18 months postdelivery.