51
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Asher DM, Belay E, Bigio E, Brandner S, Brubaker SA, Caughey B, Clark B, Damon I, Diamond M, Freund M, Hyman BT, Jucker M, Keene CD, Lieberman AP, Mackiewicz M, Montine TJ, Morgello S, Phelps C, Safar J, Schneider JA, Schonberger LB, Sigurdson C, Silverberg N, Trojanowski JQ, Frosch MP. Risk of Transmissibility From Neurodegenerative Disease-Associated Proteins: Experimental Knowns and Unknowns. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2021; 79:1141-1146. [PMID: 33000167 PMCID: PMC7577514 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlaa109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies in animal models demonstrate that certain misfolded proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases can support templated misfolding of cognate native proteins, to propagate across neural systems, and to therefore have some of the properties of classical prion diseases like Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The National Institute of Aging convened a meeting to discuss the implications of these observations for research priorities. A summary of the discussion is presented here, with a focus on limitations of current knowledge, highlighting areas that appear to require further investigation in order to guide scientific practice while minimizing potential exposure or risk in the laboratory setting. The committee concluded that, based on all currently available data, although neurodegenerative disease-associated aggregates of several different non-prion proteins can be propagated from humans to experimental animals, there is currently insufficient evidence to suggest more than a negligible risk, if any, of a direct infectious etiology for the human neurodegenerative disorders defined in part by these proteins. Given the importance of this question, the potential for noninvasive human transmission of proteopathic disorders is deserving of further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Asher
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Ermias Belay
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Eileen Bigio
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Sebastian Brandner
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology Queen Square, London
| | - Scott A Brubaker
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Byron Caughey
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Brychan Clark
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Inger Damon
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Marc Diamond
- Center for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Peter O'Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Michelle Freund
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Bradley T Hyman
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Mathias Jucker
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen
| | - C Dirk Keene
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Miroslaw Mackiewicz
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Thomas J Montine
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Susan Morgello
- Departments of Neurology, Neuroscience, and Pathology, The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Creighton Phelps
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Jiri Safar
- Departments of Pathology and Neurology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Julie A Schneider
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush Alzheimer Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Lawrence B Schonberger
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Christina Sigurdson
- Department of Pathology, University of California - San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Nina Silverberg
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - John Q Trojanowski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Matthew P Frosch
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.,C.S. Kubik Laboratory for Neuropathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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52
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Brás IC, Outeiro TF. Alpha-Synuclein: Mechanisms of Release and Pathology Progression in Synucleinopathies. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020375. [PMID: 33673034 PMCID: PMC7917664 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of misfolded alpha-synuclein (aSyn) throughout the brain, as Lewy pathology, is a phenomenon central to Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis. The stereotypical distribution and evolution of the pathology during disease is often attributed to the cell-to-cell transmission of aSyn between interconnected brain regions. The spreading of conformationally distinct aSyn protein assemblies, commonly referred as strains, is thought to result in a variety of clinically and pathologically heterogenous diseases known as synucleinopathies. Although tremendous progress has been made in the field, the mechanisms involved in the transfer of these assemblies between interconnected neural networks and their role in driving PD progression are still unclear. Here, we present an update of the relevant discoveries supporting or challenging the prion-like spreading hypothesis. We also discuss the importance of aSyn strains in pathology progression and the various putative molecular mechanisms involved in cell-to-cell protein release. Understanding the pathways underlying aSyn propagation will contribute to determining the etiology of PD and related synucleinopathies but also assist in the development of new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês C. Brás
- Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany;
| | - Tiago F. Outeiro
- Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, Department of Experimental Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany;
- Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Scientific Employee with a Honorary Contract at Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)-551-391-3544; Fax: +49-(0)-551-392-2693
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53
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Jewett KA, Thomas RE, Phan CQ, Lin B, Milstein G, Yu S, Bettcher LF, Neto FC, Djukovic D, Raftery D, Pallanck LJ, Davis MY. Glucocerebrosidase reduces the spread of protein aggregation in a Drosophila melanogaster model of neurodegeneration by regulating proteins trafficked by extracellular vesicles. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1008859. [PMID: 33539341 PMCID: PMC7888665 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormal protein aggregation within neurons is a key pathologic feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). The spread of brain protein aggregates is associated with clinical disease progression, but how this occurs remains unclear. Mutations in glucosidase, beta acid 1 (GBA), which encodes glucocerebrosidase (GCase), are the most penetrant common genetic risk factor for PD and dementia with Lewy bodies and associate with faster disease progression. To explore how GBA mutations influence pathogenesis, we previously created a Drosophila model of GBA deficiency (Gba1b) that manifests neurodegeneration and accelerated protein aggregation. Proteomic analysis of Gba1b mutants revealed dysregulation of proteins involved in extracellular vesicle (EV) biology, and we found altered protein composition of EVs from Gba1b mutants. Accordingly, we hypothesized that GBA may influence pathogenic protein aggregate spread via EVs. We found that accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and Ref(2)P, Drosophila homologue of mammalian p62, were reduced in muscle and brain tissue of Gba1b flies by ectopic expression of wildtype GCase in muscle. Neuronal GCase expression also rescued protein aggregation both cell-autonomously in brain and non-cell-autonomously in muscle. Muscle-specific GBA expression reduced the elevated levels of EV-intrinsic proteins and Ref(2)P found in EVs from Gba1b flies. Perturbing EV biogenesis through neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase), an enzyme important for EV release and ceramide metabolism, enhanced protein aggregation when knocked down in muscle, but did not modify Gba1b mutant protein aggregation when knocked down in neurons. Lipidomic analysis of nSMase knockdown on ceramide and glucosylceramide levels suggested that Gba1b mutant protein aggregation may depend on relative depletion of specific ceramide species often enriched in EVs. Finally, we identified ectopically expressed GCase within isolated EVs. Together, our findings suggest that GCase deficiency promotes accelerated protein aggregate spread between cells and tissues via dysregulated EVs, and EV-mediated trafficking of GCase may partially account for the reduction in aggregate spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A. Jewett
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Juniata College, Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ruth E. Thomas
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Chi Q. Phan
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Bernice Lin
- VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Gillian Milstein
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Selina Yu
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Lisa F. Bettcher
- Northwest Metabolomics Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Fausto Carnevale Neto
- Northwest Metabolomics Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Danijel Djukovic
- Northwest Metabolomics Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Daniel Raftery
- Northwest Metabolomics Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Leo J. Pallanck
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Marie Y. Davis
- VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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54
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Pinnell JR, Cui M, Tieu K. Exosomes in Parkinson disease. J Neurochem 2021; 157:413-428. [PMID: 33372290 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disease, in which the formation of misfolded and aggregated α-synuclein is a key neuropathological hallmark. Recent studies reveal that extracellular vesicles such as exosomes present a potential mechanism for propagation of pathological α-synuclein throughout the brain. The ability of exosomes to transport proteins and genetic material between cells, including mRNA and microRNAs which have been implicated in PD pathology, provides critical insights as to how exosomes may contribute to pathological progression in PD. Advances have also been made in the investigation of exosomes as potential tools for the modulation of Parkinson's pathology; their detection extracellularly may facilitate their use as biomarkers, while their small size could be utilised as vectors for the delivery of therapeutics. The aim of this review was to highlight our current knowledge of the role of exosomes in PD and potential clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Pinnell
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.,Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Mei Cui
- Department of Neurology, Huashan hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kim Tieu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.,Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
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55
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Guo JJ, Yue F, Song DY, Bousset L, Liang X, Tang J, Yuan L, Li W, Melki R, Tang Y, Chan P, Guo C, Li JY. Intranasal administration of α-synuclein preformed fibrils triggers microglial iron deposition in the substantia nigra of Macaca fascicularis. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:81. [PMID: 33441545 PMCID: PMC7807015 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-03369-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Iron deposition is present in main lesion areas in the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and an abnormal iron content may be associated with dopaminergic neuronal cytotoxicity and degeneration in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. However, the cause of iron deposition and its role in the pathological process of PD are unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the nasal mucosal delivery of synthetic human α-synuclein (α-syn) preformed fibrils (PFFs) on the pathogenesis of PD in Macaca fascicularis. We detected that iron deposition was clearly increased in a time-dependent manner from 1 to 17 months in the substantia nigra and globus pallidus, highly contrasting to other brain regions after treatments with α-syn PFFs. At the cellular level, the iron deposits were specifically localized in microglia but not in dopaminergic neurons, nor in other types of glial cells in the substantia nigra, whereas the expression of transferrin (TF), TF receptor 1 (TFR1), TF receptor 2 (TFR2), and ferroportin (FPn) was increased in dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, no clear dopaminergic neuron loss was observed in the substantia nigra, but with decreased immunoreactivity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and appearance of axonal swelling in the putamen. The brain region-enriched and cell-type-dependent iron localizations indicate that the intranasal α-syn PFFs treatment-induced iron depositions in microglia in the substantia nigra may appear as an early cellular response that may initiate neuroinflammation in the dopaminergic system before cell death occurs. Our data suggest that the inhibition of iron deposition may be a potential approach for the early prevention and treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Jun Guo
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Feng Yue
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Parkinson's Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Dong-Yan Song
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Luc Bousset
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS and Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, 92260, France
| | - Xin Liang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Jing Tang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Lin Yuan
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China
| | - Wen Li
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, 22184, Sweden
| | - Ronald Melki
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS and Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, 92260, France
| | - Yong Tang
- Department of Histology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400000, China
| | - Piu Chan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Parkinson's Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Chuang Guo
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China.
| | - Jia-Yi Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China.
- Unit of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Repair, Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110112, China.
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, 22184, Sweden.
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56
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Reverse engineering Lewy bodies: how far have we come and how far can we go? Nat Rev Neurosci 2021; 22:111-131. [PMID: 33432241 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-020-00416-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Lewy bodies (LBs) are α-synuclein (α-syn)-rich intracellular inclusions that are an important pathological hallmark of Parkinson disease and several other neurodegenerative diseases. Increasing evidence suggests that the aggregation of α-syn has a central role in LB formation and is one of the key processes that drive neurodegeneration and pathology progression in Parkinson disease. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying the formation of LBs, their biochemical composition and ultrastructural properties, how they evolve and spread with disease progression, and their role in neurodegeneration. In this Review, we discuss current knowledge of α-syn pathology, including the biochemical, structural and morphological features of LBs observed in different brain regions. We also review the most used cellular and animal models of α-syn aggregation and pathology spreading in relation to the extent to which they reproduce key features of authentic LBs. Finally, we provide important insights into molecular and cellular determinants of LB formation and spreading, and highlight the critical need for more detailed and systematic characterization of α-syn pathology, at both the biochemical and structural levels. This would advance our understanding of Parkinson disease and other neurodegenerative diseases and allow the development of more-reliable disease models and novel effective therapeutic strategies.
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57
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Polissidis A, Koronaiou M, Kollia V, Koronaiou E, Nakos-Bimpos M, Bogiongko M, Vrettou S, Karali K, Casadei N, Riess O, Sardi SP, Xilouri M, Stefanis L. Psychosis-Like Behavior and Hyperdopaminergic Dysregulation in Human α-Synuclein BAC Transgenic Rats. Mov Disord 2020; 36:716-728. [PMID: 33200461 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease psychosis is a prevalent yet underreported and understudied nonmotor manifestation of Parkinson's disease and, arguably, the most debilitating. It is unknown if α-synuclein plays a role in psychosis, and if so, this endophenotype may be crucial for elucidating the neurodegenerative process. OBJECTIVES We sought to dissect the underlying neurobiology of novelty-induced hyperactivity, reminiscent of psychosis-like behavior, in human α-synuclein BAC rats. RESULTS Herein, we demonstrate a prodromal psychosis-like phenotype, including late-onset sensorimotor gating disruption, striatal hyperdopaminergic signaling, and persistent novelty-induced hyperactivity (up to 18 months), albeit reduced baseline locomotor activity, that is augmented by d-amphetamine and reversed by classical and atypical antipsychotics. MicroRNA-mediated α-synuclein downregulation in the ventral midbrain rescues the hyperactive phenotype and restores striatal dopamine levels. This phenotype is accompanied by an abundance of age-, brain region- and gene dose-dependent aberrant α-synuclein, including hyperphosphorylation, C-terminal truncation, aggregation pathology, and mild nigral neurodegeneration (27%). CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate a potential role of α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease psychosis and provide evidence of region-specific perturbations prior to neurodegeneration phenoconversion. The reported phenotype coincides with the latest clinical findings that suggest a premotor hyperdopaminergic state may occur, while at the same time, premotor psychotic symptoms are increasingly being recognized. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexia Polissidis
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Koronaiou
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Vasia Kollia
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Effrosyni Koronaiou
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Modestos Nakos-Bimpos
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Marios Bogiongko
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Sofia Vrettou
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Katerina Karali
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Nicolas Casadei
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sergio P Sardi
- Rare and Neurologic Diseases Research Therapeutic Area, Framingham, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maria Xilouri
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece
| | - Leonidas Stefanis
- Center of Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (BRFAA), Athens, Greece.,1st Department of Neurology, Eginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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58
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Henrich MT, Geibl FF, Lakshminarasimhan H, Stegmann A, Giasson BI, Mao X, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Oertel WH, Surmeier DJ. Determinants of seeding and spreading of α-synuclein pathology in the brain. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eabc2487. [PMID: 33177086 PMCID: PMC7673735 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc2487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In Parkinson's disease (PD), fibrillar forms of α-synuclein are hypothesized to propagate through synaptically coupled networks, causing Lewy pathology (LP) and neurodegeneration. To more rigorously characterize the determinants of spreading, preformed α-synuclein fibrils were injected into the mouse pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN), a brain region that manifests LP in PD patients and the distribution of developing α-synuclein pathology compared to that ascertained by anterograde and retrograde connectomic mapping. Within the PPN, α-synuclein pathology was cell-specific, being robust in PD-vulnerable cholinergic neurons but not in neighboring noncholinergic neurons. While nearly all neurons projecting to PPN cholinergics manifested α-synuclein pathology, the kinetics, magnitude, and persistence of the propagated pathology were unrelated to the strength of those connections. Thus, neuronal phenotype governs the somatodendritic uptake of pathological α-synuclein, and while the afferent connectome restricts the subsequent spreading of pathology, its magnitude and persistence is not a strict function of the strength of coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin T Henrich
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg 35043, Germany
| | - Fanni F Geibl
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg 35043, Germany
| | - Harini Lakshminarasimhan
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Anna Stegmann
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg 35043, Germany
| | - Benoit I Giasson
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Xiaobo Mao
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Wolfgang H Oertel
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg 35043, Germany
| | - D James Surmeier
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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59
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Harms AS, Kordower JH, Sette A, Lindestam Arlehamn CS, Sulzer D, Mach RH. Inflammation in Experimental Models of α-Synucleinopathies. Mov Disord 2020; 36:37-49. [PMID: 33009855 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has long been associated with central nervous system pathology in α-synucleinopathy disorders including Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. In the past decade, research-focused efforts in preclinical and experimental models have rallied around this idea, and considerable effort has been made to delineate critical neuroinflammatory processes. In this article, we discuss challenges in preclinical research, notably the use of animal models to recapitulate and dissect disease phenotypes as well as the need for more sensitive, reliable radiotracers to detect on-target efficacy of immunomodulatory treatments in both human Parkinson's disease as well as preclinical models. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley S Harms
- Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Jeffrey H Kordower
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | | | - David Sulzer
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Robert H Mach
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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60
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Airavaara M, Parkkinen I, Konovalova J, Albert K, Chmielarz P, Domanskyi A. Back and to the Future: From Neurotoxin-Induced to Human Parkinson's Disease Models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 91:e88. [PMID: 32049438 DOI: 10.1002/cpns.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms such as tremor, slowness of movement, rigidity, and postural instability, as well as non-motor features like sleep disturbances, loss of ability to smell, depression, constipation, and pain. Motor symptoms are caused by depletion of dopamine in the striatum due to the progressive loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Approximately 10% of PD cases are familial arising from genetic mutations in α-synuclein, LRRK2, DJ-1, PINK1, parkin, and several other proteins. The majority of PD cases are, however, idiopathic, i.e., having no clear etiology. PD is characterized by progressive accumulation of insoluble inclusions, known as Lewy bodies, mostly composed of α-synuclein and membrane components. The cause of PD is currently attributed to cellular proteostasis deregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction, which are likely interdependent. In addition, neuroinflammation is present in brains of PD patients, but whether it is the cause or consequence of neurodegeneration remains to be studied. Rodents do not develop PD or PD-like motor symptoms spontaneously; however, neurotoxins, genetic mutations, viral vector-mediated transgene expression and, recently, injections of misfolded α-synuclein have been successfully utilized to model certain aspects of the disease. Here, we critically review the advantages and drawbacks of rodent PD models and discuss approaches to advance pre-clinical PD research towards successful disease-modifying therapy. © 2020 The Authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikko Airavaara
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilmari Parkkinen
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Julia Konovalova
- Institute of Biotechnology, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katrina Albert
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Piotr Chmielarz
- Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Andrii Domanskyi
- Institute of Biotechnology, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Heras-Garvin A, Stefanova N. From Synaptic Protein to Prion: The Long and Controversial Journey of α-Synuclein. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2020; 12:584536. [PMID: 33071772 PMCID: PMC7536368 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.584536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery 30 years ago, α-synuclein (α-syn) has been one of the most studied proteins in the field of neuroscience. Dozens of groups worldwide have tried to reveal not only its role in the CNS but also in other organs. α-syn has been linked to several processes essential in brain homeostasis such as neurotransmitter release, synaptic function, and plasticity. However, despite the efforts made in this direction, the main function of α-syn is still unknown. Moreover, α-syn became a protein of interest for neurologists and neuroscientists when mutations in its gene were found associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and even more when α-syn protein deposits were observed in the brain of PD, dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA) patients. At present, the abnormal accumulation of α-syn constitutes one of the pathological hallmarks of these disorders, also referred to as α-synucleinopathies, and it is used for post-mortem diagnostic criteria. Whether α-syn aggregation is cause or consequence of the pathogenic events underlying α-synucleinopathies remains unclear and under discussion. Recently, different in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the ability of pathogenic α-syn to spread between cells, not only within the CNS but also from peripheral locations such as the gut, salivary glands, and through the olfactory network into the CNS, inducing abnormal misfolding of endogenous α-syn and leading to neurodegeneration and motor and cognitive impairment in animal models. Thus, it has been suggested that α-syn should be considered a prion protein. Here we present an update of what we know about α-syn function, aggregation and spreading, and its role in neurodegeneration. We also discuss the rationale and findings supporting the hypothetical prion nature of α-syn, its weaknesses, and future perspectives for research and the development of disease-modifying therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Heras-Garvin
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nadia Stefanova
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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62
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Volc D, Poewe W, Kutzelnigg A, Lührs P, Thun-Hohenstein C, Schneeberger A, Galabova G, Majbour N, Vaikath N, El-Agnaf O, Winter D, Mihailovska E, Mairhofer A, Schwenke C, Staffler G, Medori R. Safety and immunogenicity of the α-synuclein active immunotherapeutic PD01A in patients with Parkinson's disease: a randomised, single-blinded, phase 1 trial. Lancet Neurol 2020; 19:591-600. [PMID: 32562684 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(20)30136-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Robust evidence supports the role of α-synuclein pathology as a driver of neuronal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. PD01A is a specific active immunotherapy with a short peptide formulation targeted against oligomeric α-synuclein. This phase 1 study assessed the safety and tolerability of the PD01A immunotherapeutic in patients with Parkinson's disease. METHODS We did a first-in-human, randomised, phase 1 study of immunisations with PD01A, followed by three consecutive study extensions. Patients aged 45-65 years with a clinical diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (≤4 years since diagnosis and Hoehn and Yahr Stage 1 to 2), imaging results (dopamine transporter single photon emission CT and MRI) consistent with their Parkinson's disease diagnosis, and on stable doses of Parkinson's disease medications for at least 3 months were recruited at a single private clinic in Vienna, Austria. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1), using a computer-generated sequence with varying block size, to receive four subcutaneous immunisations with either 15 μg or 75 μg PD01A injected into the upper arms and followed up initially for 52 weeks, followed by a further 39 weeks' follow-up. Patients were then randomly assigned (1:1) again to receive the first booster immunisation at 15 μg or 75 μg and were followed up for 24 weeks. All patients received a second booster immunisation of 75 μg and were followed up for an additional 52 weeks. Patients were masked to dose allocation. Primary (safety) analyses included all treated patients. These four studies were registered with EU Clinical Trials Register, EudraCT numbers 2011-002650-31, 2013-001774-20, 2014-002489-54, and 2015-004854-16. FINDINGS 32 patients were recruited between Feb 14, 2012, and Feb 6, 2013, and 24 were deemed eligible and randomly assigned to receive four PD01A priming immunisations. One patient had a diagnosis change to multiple system atrophy and was withdrawn and two patients withdrew consent during the studies. 21 (87%) of 24 patients received all six immunisations and completed 221-259 weeks in-study (two patients in the 15 μg dose group and one patient in the 75 μg dose group discontinued). All patients experienced at least one adverse event, but most of them were considered unrelated to study treatment (except for transient local injection site reactions, which affected all but one patient). Serial MRI assessments also ruled out inflammatory processes. Systemic treatment-related adverse events were fatigue (n=4), headache (n=3), myalgia (n=3), muscle rigidity (n=2), and tremor (n=2). The geometric group mean titre of antibodies against the immunising peptide PD01 increased from 1:46 at baseline to 1:3580 at week 12 in the 15 μg dose group, and from 1:76 to 1:2462 at week 12 in the 75 μg dose group. Antibody titres returned to baseline over 2 years, but could be rapidly reactivated after booster immunisation from week 116 onwards, reaching geometric group mean titres up to 1:20218. INTERPRETATION Repeated administrations of PD01A were safe and well tolerated over an extended period. Specific active immunotherapy resulted in a substantial humoral immune response with target engagement. Phase 2 studies are needed to further assess the safety and efficacy of PD01A for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. FUNDING AFFiRiS, Michael J Fox Foundation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Volc
- Confraternitaet-Privatklinik Josefstadt, Vienna, Austria
| | - Werner Poewe
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nour Majbour
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | - Nishant Vaikath
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | - Omar El-Agnaf
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | | | | | | | - Carsten Schwenke
- Schwenke Consulting: Strategies and Solutions in Statistics, Berlin, Germany
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Ross A, Xing V, Wang TT, Bureau SC, Link GA, Fortin T, Zhang H, Hayley S, Sun H. Alleviating toxic α-Synuclein accumulation by membrane depolarization: evidence from an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease. Mol Brain 2020; 13:108. [PMID: 32736645 PMCID: PMC7395353 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00648-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the formation of toxic, fibrillar form alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) protein aggregates in dopaminergic neurons. Accumulating evidence has shown a multifactorial interplay between the intracellular calcium elevation and α-Syn dynamics. However, whether membrane depolarization regulates toxic α-Syn aggregates remains unclear. To understand this better, we used an in vitro α-Syn preformed fibrils (PFF) model of PD in human neural cells. We demonstrated functional membrane depolarization in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells induced by two independent treatments: high extracellular K+ and the GABAA receptor blocker picrotoxin. We then observed that these treatments significantly alleviated toxic α-Syn aggregation in PFF-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, clinically relevant direct current stimulation (DCS) also remarkably decreased toxic α-Syn aggregation in PFF-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that membrane depolarization plays an important role in alleviating PFF-induced toxic α-Syn aggregates, and that it may represent a novel therapeutic mechanism for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysia Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Viktoria Xing
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Ting Ting Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Samantha C Bureau
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Giovana A Link
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Teresa Fortin
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical center, Brooklyn, NY, 11226, USA
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Hongyu Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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64
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Li Y, Yang C, Wang S, Yang D, Zhang Y, Xu L, Ma L, Zheng J, Petersen RB, Zheng L, Chen H, Huang K. Copper and iron ions accelerate the prion-like propagation of α-synuclein: A vicious cycle in Parkinson's disease. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 163:562-573. [PMID: 32629061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Protein fibrils drive the onset and progression of many diseases in a prion-like manner, i.e. they transcellular propagate through the extracellular space to health cells to initiate toxic aggregation as seeds. The conversion of native α-synuclein into filamentous aggregates in Lewy bodies is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Copper and iron ions accumulate in PD brains, however, whether they influence the prion-like propagation of α-synuclein remain unclear. Here, we reported that copper/iron ions accelerate prion-like propagation of α-synuclein fibrils by promoting cellular internalization of α-synuclein fibrils, intracellular α-synuclein aggregation and the subsequent release of mature fibrils to the extracellular space to induce further propagation. Mechanistically, copper/iron ions enhanced α-synuclein fibrils internalization was mediated by negatively charged membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). α-Synuclein fibrils formed in the presence of copper/iron ions were more cytotoxic, causing increased ROS production, cell apoptosis, and shortened the lifespan of a C. elegans PD model overexpressing human α-synuclein. Notably, these deleterious effects were ameliorated by two clinically used chelators, triethylenetetramine and deferiprone. Together, our results suggest a new role for heavy metal ions, e.g. copper and iron, in the pathogenesis of PD through accelerating prion-like propagation of α-synuclein fibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Chen Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Shilin Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Dong Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Li Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Liang Ma
- Affiliated Wuhan Mental Health Center, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430012, China
| | - Jiaojiao Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Robert B Petersen
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mt. Pleasant 48858, MI, USA
| | - Ling Zheng
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hong Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Kun Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
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65
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Dehay B, Bezard E. Intrastriatal injection of alpha-synuclein fibrils induces Parkinson-like pathology in macaques. Brain 2020; 142:3321-3322. [PMID: 31665750 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This scientific commentary refers to ‘Intrastriatal alpha-synuclein fibrils in monkeys: spreading, imaging and neuropathological changes’, by Chu et al. (doi:10.1093/brain/awz296).
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Dehay
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Bordeaux, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 5293, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Bordeaux, France
| | - Erwan Bezard
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Bordeaux, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 5293, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Bordeaux, France
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66
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Bourdenx M, Nioche A, Dovero S, Arotcarena ML, Camus S, Porras G, Thiolat ML, Rougier NP, Prigent A, Aubert P, Bohic S, Sandt C, Laferrière F, Doudnikoff E, Kruse N, Mollenhauer B, Novello S, Morari M, Leste-Lasserre T, Trigo-Damas I, Goillandeau M, Perier C, Estrada C, Garcia-Carrillo N, Recasens A, Vaikath NN, El-Agnaf OMA, Herrero MT, Derkinderen P, Vila M, Obeso JA, Dehay B, Bezard E. Identification of distinct pathological signatures induced by patient-derived α-synuclein structures in nonhuman primates. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaaz9165. [PMID: 32426502 PMCID: PMC7220339 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaz9165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Dopaminergic neuronal cell death, associated with intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn)-rich protein aggregates [termed "Lewy bodies" (LBs)], is a well-established characteristic of Parkinson's disease (PD). Much evidence, accumulated from multiple experimental models, has suggested that α-syn plays a role in PD pathogenesis, not only as a trigger of pathology but also as a mediator of disease progression through pathological spreading. Here, we have used a machine learning-based approach to identify unique signatures of neurodegeneration in monkeys induced by distinct α-syn pathogenic structures derived from patients with PD. Unexpectedly, our results show that, in nonhuman primates, a small amount of singular α-syn aggregates is as toxic as larger amyloid fibrils present in the LBs, thus reinforcing the need for preclinical research in this species. Furthermore, our results provide evidence supporting the true multifactorial nature of PD, as multiple causes can induce a similar outcome regarding dopaminergic neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Bourdenx
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - A. Nioche
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- Institut Jean Nicod, Département d’études cognitives, ENS, EHESS, PSL Research University, 75005 Paris, France
- Institut Jean Nicod, Département d’études cognitives, CNRS, UMR 8129, Paris, France
| | - S. Dovero
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - M.-L. Arotcarena
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - S. Camus
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - G. Porras
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - M.-L. Thiolat
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - N. P. Rougier
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- INRIA Bordeaux Sud-Ouest, 33405 Talence, France
| | - A. Prigent
- INSERM, U1235, Nantes F-44035, France
- Nantes University, Nantes F-44035, France
- CHU Nantes, Department of Neurology, Nantes F-44093, France
| | - P. Aubert
- INSERM, U1235, Nantes F-44035, France
- Nantes University, Nantes F-44035, France
- CHU Nantes, Department of Neurology, Nantes F-44093, France
| | - S. Bohic
- EA-7442 Rayonnement Synchrotron et Recherche Medicale, RSRM, University of Grenoble Alpes, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - C. Sandt
- SMIS beamline, Synchrotron SOLEIL, l’orme des merisiers, 91192 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - F. Laferrière
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - E. Doudnikoff
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - N. Kruse
- Paracelsus-Elena-Klinik, Kassel, Germany
- University Medical Center Goettingen, Institute of Neuropathology, Goettingen, Germany
| | - B. Mollenhauer
- Paracelsus-Elena-Klinik, Kassel, Germany
- University Medical Center Goettingen, Institute of Neuropathology, Goettingen, Germany
| | - S. Novello
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 17-19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- Neuroscience Center and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 17-19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - M. Morari
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 17-19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- Neuroscience Center and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 17-19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - T. Leste-Lasserre
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - I. Trigo-Damas
- HM CINAC, HM Puerta del Sur and CEU–San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938 Mostoles, Spain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - M. Goillandeau
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - C. Perier
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d’Hebron Research Institute (VHIR)–Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - C. Estrada
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience Unit, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB), University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, 30100 Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Research on Aging (IUIE), School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - N. Garcia-Carrillo
- Centro Experimental en Investigaciones Biomédica (CEIB), Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - A. Recasens
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d’Hebron Research Institute (VHIR)–Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - N. N. Vaikath
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Education City, Qatar
| | - O. M. A. El-Agnaf
- Neurological Disorders Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Education City, Qatar
| | - M. T. Herrero
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience Unit, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB), University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, 30100 Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Research on Aging (IUIE), School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - P. Derkinderen
- INSERM, U1235, Nantes F-44035, France
- Nantes University, Nantes F-44035, France
- CHU Nantes, Department of Neurology, Nantes F-44093, France
| | - M. Vila
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d’Hebron Research Institute (VHIR)–Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - J. A. Obeso
- HM CINAC, HM Puerta del Sur and CEU–San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938 Mostoles, Spain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - B. Dehay
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - E. Bezard
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
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67
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Advances in modelling alpha-synuclein-induced Parkinson’s diseases in rodents: Virus-based models versus inoculation of exogenous preformed toxic species. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 338:108685. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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68
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Gómez-Benito M, Granado N, García-Sanz P, Michel A, Dumoulin M, Moratalla R. Modeling Parkinson's Disease With the Alpha-Synuclein Protein. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:356. [PMID: 32390826 PMCID: PMC7191035 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is a key protein involved in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathology. PD is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neuronal cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the abnormal accumulation and aggregation of α-Syn in the form of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. More precisely, the aggregation of α-Syn is associated with the dysfunctionality and degeneration of neurons in PD. Moreover, mutations in the SNCA gene, which encodes α-Syn, cause familial forms of PD and are the basis of sporadic PD risk. Given the role of the α-Syn protein in the pathology of PD, animal models that reflect the dopaminergic neuronal loss and the widespread and progressive formation of α-Syn aggregates in different areas of the brain constitute a valuable tool. Indeed, animal models of PD are important for understanding the molecular mechanisms of the disease and might contribute to the development and validation of new therapies. In the absence of animal models that faithfully reproduce human PD, in recent years, numerous animal models of PD based on α-Syn have been generated. In this review, we summarize the main features of the α-Syn pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) model and recombinant adeno-associated virus vector (rAAV) mediated α-Syn overexpression models, providing a detailed comparative analysis of both models. Here, we discuss how each model has contributed to our understanding of PD pathology and the advantages and weakness of each of them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Gómez-Benito
- Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain.,CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Noelia Granado
- Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain.,CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia García-Sanz
- Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain.,CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Anne Michel
- UCB Biopharma, Neuroscience TA, Braine L'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Mireille Dumoulin
- Centre of Protein Engineering, InBios, University of Liege, Liège, Belgium
| | - Rosario Moratalla
- Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain.,CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Initiation and propagation of α-synuclein aggregation in the nervous system. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:19. [PMID: 32143659 PMCID: PMC7060612 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The two main pathological hallmarks of Parkinson’s disease are loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and proteinaceous amyloid fibrils composed mostly of α-synuclein, called Lewy pathology. Levodopa to enhance dopaminergic transmission remains one of the most effective treatment for alleviating the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (Olanow, Mov Disord 34:812–815, 2019). In addition, deep brain stimulation (Bronstein et al., Arch Neurol 68:165, 2011) to modulate basal ganglia circuit activity successfully alleviates some motor symptoms. MRI guided focused ultrasound in the subthalamic nucleus is a promising therapeutic strategy as well (Martinez-Fernandez et al., Lancet Neurol 17:54–63, 2018). However, to date, there exists no treatment that stops the progression of this disease. The findings that α-synuclein can be released from neurons and inherited through interconnected neural networks opened the door for discovering novel treatment strategies to prevent the formation and spread of Lewy pathology with the goal of halting PD in its tracks. This hypothesis is based on discoveries that pathologic aggregates of α-synuclein induce the endogenous α-synuclein protein to adopt a similar pathologic conformation, and is thus self-propagating. Phase I clinical trials are currently ongoing to test treatments such as immunotherapy to prevent the neuron to neuron spread of extracellular aggregates. Although tremendous progress has been made in understanding how Lewy pathology forms and spreads throughout the brain, cell intrinsic factors also play a critical role in the formation of pathologic α-synuclein, such as mechanisms that increase endogenous α-synuclein levels, selective expression profiles in distinct neuron subtypes, mutations and altered function of proteins involved in α-synuclein synthesis and degradation, and oxidative stress. Strategies that prevent the formation of pathologic α-synuclein should consider extracellular release and propagation, as well as neuron intrinsic mechanisms.
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Teil M, Arotcarena ML, Faggiani E, Laferriere F, Bezard E, Dehay B. Targeting α-synuclein for PD Therapeutics: A Pursuit on All Fronts. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10030391. [PMID: 32138193 PMCID: PMC7175302 DOI: 10.3390/biom10030391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is characterized both by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the presence of cytoplasmic inclusions called Lewy Bodies. These Lewy Bodies contain the aggregated α-synuclein (α-syn) protein, which has been shown to be able to propagate from cell to cell and throughout different regions in the brain. Due to its central role in the pathology and the lack of a curative treatment for PD, an increasing number of studies have aimed at targeting this protein for therapeutics. Here, we reviewed and discussed the many different approaches that have been studied to inhibit α-syn accumulation via direct and indirect targeting. These analyses have led to the generation of multiple clinical trials that are either completed or currently active. These clinical trials and the current preclinical studies must still face obstacles ahead, but give hope of finding a therapy for PD with time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaux Teil
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Marie-Laure Arotcarena
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Emilie Faggiani
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Florent Laferriere
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Erwan Bezard
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Benjamin Dehay
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; (M.T.); (M.-L.A.); (E.F.); (F.L.); (E.B.)
- CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
- Correspondence:
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Faustini G, Longhena F, Bruno A, Bono F, Grigoletto J, La Via L, Barbon A, Casiraghi A, Straniero V, Valoti E, Costantino G, Benfenati F, Missale C, Pizzi M, Spillantini MG, Bellucci A. Alpha-synuclein/synapsin III pathological interplay boosts the motor response to methylphenidate. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 138:104789. [PMID: 32032728 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons and fibrillary α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation in Lewy bodies (LB) characterize Parkinson's disease (PD). We recently found that Synapsin III (Syn III), a phosphoprotein regulating dopamine (DA) release with α-syn, is another key component of LB fibrils in the brain of PD patients and acts as a crucial mediator of α-syn aggregation and toxicity. Methylphenidate (MPH), a monoamine reuptake inhibitor (MRI) efficiently counteracting freezing of gait in advanced PD patients, can bind α-syn and controls α-syn-mediated DA overflow and presynaptic compartmentalization. Interestingly, MPH results also efficient for the treatment of attention deficits and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a neurodevelopmental psychiatric syndrome associated with Syn III and α-syn polymorphisms and constituting a risk factor for the development of LB disorders. Here, we studied α-syn/Syn III co-deposition and longitudinal changes of α-syn, Syn III and DA transporter (DAT) striatal levels in nigrostriatal neurons of a PD model, the human C-terminally truncated (1-120) α-syn transgenic (SYN120 tg) mouse, in comparison with C57BL/6J wild type (wt) and C57BL/6JOlaHsd α-syn null littermates. Then, we analyzed the locomotor response of these animals to an acute administration of MPH (d-threo) and other MRIs: cocaine, that we previously found to stimulate Syn III-reliant DA release in the absence of α-syn, or the selective DAT blocker GBR-12935, along aging. Finally, we assessed whether these drugs modulate α-syn/Syn III interaction by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and performed in silico studies engendering a heuristic model of the α-syn conformations stabilized upon MPH binding. We found that only MPH was able to over-stimulate a Syn III-dependent/DAT-independent locomotor activity in the aged SYN120 tg mice showing α-syn/Syn III co-aggregates. MPH enhanced full length (fl) α-syn/Syn III and even more (1-120) α-syn/Syn III interaction in cells exhibiting α-syn/Syn III inclusions. Moreover, in silico studies confirmed that MPH may reduce α-syn fibrillation by stabilizing a protein conformation with increased lipid binding predisposition. Our observations indicate that the motor-stimulating effect of MPH can be positively fostered in the presence of α-syn/Syn III co-aggregation. This evidence holds significant implications for PD and ADHD therapeutic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaia Faustini
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Francesca Longhena
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Agostino Bruno
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze, 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Federica Bono
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy; Laboratory for Preventive and Personalized Medicine, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Jessica Grigoletto
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Luca La Via
- Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Barbon
- Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Andrea Casiraghi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Giuseppe Colombo 60, Milano, Italy.
| | - Valentina Straniero
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Giuseppe Colombo 60, Milano, Italy.
| | - Ermanno Valoti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Giuseppe Colombo 60, Milano, Italy.
| | - Gabriele Costantino
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze, 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Fabio Benfenati
- Italian Institute of Technology, Via Morego 30, Genova, Italy; IRCSS Policlinico San Martino Hospital, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genova, Italy.
| | - Cristina Missale
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Marina Pizzi
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Maria Grazia Spillantini
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Clifford Albutt Building, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK.
| | - Arianna Bellucci
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy; Laboratory for Preventive and Personalized Medicine, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
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