The Drosophila mei-S332 gene promotes sister-chromatid cohesion in meiosis following kinetochore differentiation

Shugoshin: guardian spirit at the centromere

A recently emerging protein family, shugoshin, plays a crucial role in the centromeric protection of cohesin, which is responsible for sister chromatid cohesion. This is especially important at the first meiotic division, where cohesin is cleaved by separase only along chromosome arms while the centromeric cohesin must be preserved. In vertebrate cells, arm cohesion is largely lost during prophase and prometaphase in order to facilitate sister chromatid resolution, whereas centromeric cohesion is preserved until the bipolar attachment of sister chromatids is established. Vertebrate shugoshin plays an essential role in protecting centromeric cohesin from prophase dissociation. In yeast, shugoshin also has a crucial role in sensing the loss of tension at kinetochores and in generating the spindle checkpoint signal.

Keeping sister chromatids together: cohesins in meiosis

Meiosis poses unique challenges to chromosome dynamics. Before entry into meiosis, each chromosome is duplicated and gives rise to two sister chromatids linked to each other by cohesion. Production of haploid gametes requires segregation of homologous chromosomes in the first meiotic division and of sister chromatids in the second. To ensure precise distribution of chromosomes to the daughter cells, sister chromatid cohesion (SCC) has to be dissolved in two steps. Maintenance and regulation of SCC is performed by the cohesin protein complex. This short review will primarily focus on the core cohesin proteins before venturing into adjacent territories with an emphasis on interacting proteins and complexes. It will also concentrate on mammalian meiosis and only occasionally discuss cohesion in other organisms.

Shugoshin: a centromeric guardian senses tension

To ensure accurate chromosome segregation during mitosis, the spindle checkpoint monitors chromosome alignment on the mitotic spindle. Indjeian and colleagues have investigated the precise role of the shugoshin 1 protein (Sgo1p) in this process in budding yeast. The Sgo proteins were originally identified as highly conserved proteins that protect cohesion at centromeres during the first meiotic division. Together with other recent findings, the study highlighted here has identified Sgo1 as a component that informs the mitotic spindle checkpoint when spindle tension is perturbed. This discovery has provided a molecular link between sister chromatid cohesion and tension-sensing at the kinetochore-microtubule interface.

Shugoshin, a guardian for sister chromatid segregation

To ensure sister chromatids to be equally transmitted to daughter cells, it is imperative that physical association of sister chromatids is maintained during S, G2, and early mitosis until the onset of anaphase. Cohesion of sister chromatids in eukaryotes is largely achieved by the cohesin complex. In vertebrates, cohesin molecules are dissociated from chromosome arms but not from centromeres during prophase by the so-called prophase pathway. Although it remains unclear what is the molecular basis by which centromeric cohesin is retained, a flurry of recent studies have shed light on a family of proteins named Shugoshin (Sgo) that are evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes. Sgo1 functions as a protector of centromeric cohesin during meiosis in yeast and during mitosis in high eukaryotes. Suppression of Sgo1 function results in premature separation of sister chromatids in both meiosis and mitosis. The discovery of members of the Sgo family may help to explain how centromeric cohesin is protected from dissociation from DNA until the onset of anaphase. Given the importance of chromosome cohesion in the maintenance of genomic stability, further characterization of Sgo1 and related molecules may also open up new avenues of research for developing new strategies for cancer intervention.

A REC8-dependent plant Shugoshin is required for maintenance of centromeric cohesion during meiosis and has no mitotic functions

During meiosis, sequential release of sister chromatid cohesion (SSC) during two successive nuclear divisions allows the production of haploid gametes from diploid progenitor cells. Release of SSC along chromosome arms allows first a reductional segregation of homologs, and, subsequently, release of centromeric cohesion at anaphase II allows the segregation of chromatids. The Shugoshin (SGO) protein family plays a major role in the protection of centromeric cohesion in Drosophila and yeast. We have isolated a maize mutant that displays premature loss of centromeric cohesion at anaphase I. We showed that this phenotype is due to the absence of ZmSGO1 protein, a maize shugoshin homolog. We also show that ZmSGO1 is localized to the centromeres. The ZmSGO1 protein is not found on mitotic chromosomes and has no obvious mitotic function. On the basis of these results, we propose that ZmSGO1 specifically maintains centromeric cohesion during meiosis I and therefore suggest that SGO1 core functions during meiosis are conserved across kingdoms and in large-genome species. However, in contrast to other Shugoshins, we observed an early and REC8-dependent recruitment of ZmSGO1 in maize, suggesting that control of SGO1 recruitment to chromosomes is different in plants than in other model organisms.

Spo13 maintains centromeric cohesion and kinetochore coorientation during meiosis I

BACKGROUND

The meiotic cell cycle, the cell division cycle that leads to the generation of gametes, is unique in that a single DNA replication phase is followed by two chromosome segregation phases. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are segregated, and during meiosis II, as in mitosis, sister chromatids are partitioned. For homolog segregation to occur during meiosis I, physical linkages called chiasmata need to form between homologs, sister chromatid cohesion has to be lost in a stepwise manner, and sister kinetochores must attach to microtubules emanating from the same spindle pole (coorientation).

RESULTS

Here we show that the meiosis-specific factor Spo13 functions in two key aspects of meiotic chromosome segregation. In cells lacking SPO13, cohesin, which is the protein complex that holds sister chromatids together, is not protected from removal around kinetochores during meiosis I but is instead lost along the entire length of the chromosomes. We furthermore find that Spo13 promotes sister kinetochore coorientation by maintaining the monopolin complex at kinetochores. In the absence of SPO13, Mam1 and Lrs4 disassociate from kinetochores prematurely during pro-metaphase I and metaphase I, resulting in a partial defect in sister kinetochore coorientation in spo13 Delta cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that Spo13 has the ability to regulate both the stepwise loss of sister chromatid cohesion and kinetochore coorientation, two essential features of meiotic chromosome segregation.

Roles and regulation of the Drosophila centromere cohesion protein MEI-S332 family

In meiosis, a physical attachment, or cohesion, between the centromeres of the sister chromatids is retained until their separation at anaphase II. This cohesion is essential for ensuring accurate segregation of the sister chromatids in meiosis II and avoiding aneuploidy, a condition that can lead to prenatal lethality or birth defects. The Drosophila MEI-S332 protein localizes to centromeres when sister chromatids are attached in mitosis and meiosis, and it is required to maintain cohesion at the centromeres after cohesion along the sister chromatid arms is lost at the metaphase I/anaphase I transition. MEI-S332 is the founding member of a family of proteins that protect centromeric cohesion but whose members also affect kinetochore behaviour and spindle microtubule dynamics. We compare the Drosophila MEI-S332 family members, evaluate the role of MEI-S332 in mitosis and meiosis I, and discuss the regulation of localization of MEI-S332 to the centromere and its dissociation at anaphase. We analyse the relationship between MEI-S332 and cohesin, a protein complex that is also necessary for sister-chromatid cohesion in mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, centromere localization of Collapse

Key Words

• meiosis
• sister chromatids
• centromere
• kinetochore
• chromosome segregation

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MESH Headings

• Amino Acid Sequence
• Animals
• Cell Cycle/physiology
• Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
• Cell Cycle Proteins/metabolism
• Cell Cycle Proteins/physiology
• Centromere/metabolism
• Chromatids/metabolism
• Chromosomal Proteins, Non-Histone
• Chromosome Segregation/physiology
• Drosophila/metabolism
• Drosophila/physiology
• Drosophila Proteins/genetics
• Drosophila Proteins/metabolism
• Drosophila Proteins/physiology
• Fungal Proteins
• Kinetochores/metabolism
• Molecular Sequence Data
• Multigene Family/physiology
• Nuclear Proteins/metabolism
• Nuclear Proteins/physiology
• Protein Structure, Tertiary
• Sequence Alignment
• Sex Factors
• Species Specificity
• Spindle Apparatus/metabolism
• Cohesins

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Janice Y Lee
Aki Hayashi-Hagihara
Terry L Orr-Weaver Whitehead Institute and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA 02142, USA

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How might cohesin hold sister chromatids together?

The sister chromatid cohesion essential for the bi-orientation of chromosomes on mitotic spindles depends on a multi-subunit complex called cohesin. This paper reviews the evidence that cohesin is directly responsible for holding sister DNAs together and considers how it might perform this function in the light of recent data on its structure.

POLO kinase regulates the Drosophila centromere cohesion protein MEI-S332

Accurate segregation of chromosomes is critical to ensure that each daughter cell receives the full genetic complement. Maintenance of cohesion between sister chromatids, especially at centromeres, is required to segregate chromosomes precisely during mitosis and meiosis. The Drosophila protein MEI-S332, the founding member of a conserved protein family, is essential in meiosis for maintaining cohesion at centromeres until sister chromatids separate at the metaphase II/anaphase II transition. MEI-S332 localizes onto centromeres in prometaphase of mitosis or meiosis I, remaining until sister chromatids segregate. We elucidated a mechanism for controlling release of MEI-S332 from centromeres via phosphorylation by POLO kinase. We demonstrate that POLO antagonizes MEI-S332 cohesive function and that full POLO activity is needed to remove MEI-S332 from centromeres, yet this delocalization is not required for sister chromatid separation. POLO phosphorylates MEI-S332 in vitro, POLO and MEI-S332 bind each other, and mutation of POLO binding sites prevents MEI-S332 dissociation from centromeres.

A new target for POLO in meiotic centromere cohesion

The POLO kinase is a key regulator of the release of sister chromatid cohesion at the onset of mitotic anaphase, as well as of other features of the mitotic and meiotic processes. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Clarke et al. show that POLO also regulates the function of the MEI-S332 protein, which plays a critical role in the maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion at the centromere during meiosis.

Kinetochore rearrangement in meiosis II requires attachment to the spindle

The distinctive behaviors of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis depend upon differences in kinetochore position. Kinetochore position is well established except for a critical transition between meiosis I and meiosis II. We examined kinetochore position during the transition and compared it with the position of kinetochores in mitosis. Immunofluorescence staining using the 3F3/2 antibody showed that in mitosis in grasshopper cells, as in other organisms, kinetochores are positioned on opposite sides of the two sister chromatids. In meiosis I, sister kinetochores are positioned side by side. At nuclear envelope breakdown in meiosis II, sister kinetochores are still side by side, but are separated by the time all chromosomes have fully attached in metaphase II. Micromanipulation experiments reveal that this switch from side-by-side to separated sister kinetochores requires attachment to the spindle. Moreover, it is irreversible, as chromosomes detached from a metaphase II spindle retain separate kinetochores. How this critical separation of sister kinetochores occurs in meiosis is uncertain, but clearly it is not built into the chromosome before nuclear envelope breakdown, as it is in mitosis.

The centromeric protein Sgo1 is required to sense lack of tension on mitotic chromosomes

Chromosome alignment on the mitotic spindle is monitored by the spindle checkpoint. We identify Sgo1, a protein involved in meiotic chromosome cohesion, as a spindle checkpoint component. Budding yeast cells with mutations in SGO1 respond normally to microtubule depolymerization but not to lack of tension at the kinetochore, and they have difficulty attaching sister chromatids to opposite poles of the spindle. Sgo1 is thus required for sensing tension between sister chromatids during mitosis, and its degradation when they separate may prevent cell cycle arrest and chromosome loss in anaphase, a time when sister chromatids are no longer under tension.

The structure and function of SMC and kleisin complexes

Protein complexes consisting of structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) and kleisin subunits are crucial for the faithful segregation of chromosomes during cell proliferation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Two of the best-studied SMC complexes are cohesin and condensin. Cohesin is required to hold sister chromatids together, which allows their bio-orientation on the mitotic spindle. Cleavage of cohesin's kleisin subunit by the separase protease then triggers the movement of sister chromatids into opposite halves of the cell during anaphase. Condensin is required to organize mitotic chromosomes into coherent structures that prevent them from getting tangled up during segregation. Here we describe the discovery of SMC complexes and discuss recent advances in determining how members of this ancient protein family may function at a mechanistic level.

Human Bub1 protects centromeric sister-chromatid cohesion through Shugoshin during mitosis

Sister chromatids in mammalian cells remain attached mostly at their centromeres at metaphase because of the loss of cohesion along chromosome arms in prophase. Here, we report that Bub1 retains centromeric cohesion in mitosis of human cells. Depletion of Bub1 or Shugoshin (Sgo1) in HeLa cells by RNA interference causes massive missegregation of sister chromatids that originates at centromeres. Surprisingly, loss of chromatid cohesion in Bub1 and Sgo1 RNA-interference cells does not appear to require the full activation of separase but, instead, triggers a mitotic arrest that depends on Mad2 and Aurora B. Bub1 maintains the steady-state levels and centromeric localization of Sgo1. Therefore, Bub1 protects centromeric cohesion through Shugoshin in mitosis.

Meiosis: cell-cycle controls shuffle and deal

Meiosis is the type of cell division that gives rise to eggs and sperm. Errors in the execution of this process can result in the generation of aneuploid gametes, which are associated with birth defects and infertility in humans. Here, we review recent findings on how cell-cycle controls ensure the coordination of meiotic events, with a particular focus on the segregation of chromosomes.

The Drosophila meiotic kleisin C(2)M functions before the meiotic divisions

Stepwise and regionally controlled resolution of sister chromatid cohesion is thought to be crucial for faithful chromosome segregation during meiotic divisions. In yeast, the meiosis-specific alpha-kleisin subunit of the cohesin complex, Rec8, is protected from cleavage by separase but only during meiosis I and specifically within the pericentromeric region. While the Drosophila genome does not contain an obvious Rec8 orthologue, as other animal and plant genomes, it includes c(2)M, which encodes a distant alpha-kleisin family member involved in female meiosis. C(2)M associates in vivo with the Smc3 cohesin subunit, as previously shown for yeast Rec8. In contrast to Rec8, however, C(2)M accumulates predominantly after the pre-meiotic S-phase. Moreover, after association with the synaptonemal complex, it disappears again and cannot be detected on meiotic chromosomes by metaphase I. C(2)M cleavage fragments are not observed during completion of the meiotic divisions, and mutations within putative separase cleavage sites do not interfere with meiotic chromosome segregation. Therefore, C(2)M appears to function within the synaptonemal complex during prophase I but possibly not thereafter. This suggests that C(2)M may not confer sister chromatid cohesion needed for meiosis I and II chromosome segregation.

Control of centromere localization of the MEI-S332 cohesion protection protein

In mitosis and meiosis, cohesion is maintained at the centromere until sister-chromatid separation. Drosophila MEI-S332 is essential for centromeric cohesion in meiosis and contributes to, though is not absolutely required for, cohesion in mitosis. It localizes specifically to centromeres in prometaphase and delocalizes at the metaphase-anaphase transition. In mei-S332 mutants, centromeric sister-chromatid cohesion is lost at anaphase I, giving meiosis II missegregation. MEI-S332 is the founding member of a family of proteins important for chromosome segregation. One likely activity of these proteins is to protect the cohesin subunit Rec8 from cleavage at the metaphase I-anaphase I transition. Although the family members do not show high sequence identity, there are two short stretches of homology, and mutations in conserved residues affect protein function. Here we analyze the cis- and trans-acting factors required for MEI-S332 localization. We find a striking correlation between domains necessary for MEI-S332 centromere localization and conserved regions within the protein family. Drosophila MEI-S332 expressed in human cells localizes to mitotic centromeres, further highlighting this functional conservation. MEI-S332 can localize independently of cohesin, assembling even onto unreplicated chromatids. However, the separase pathway that regulates cohesin dissociation is needed for MEI-S332 delocalization at anaphase.

Two fission yeast homologs of Drosophila Mei-S332 are required for chromosome segregation during meiosis I and II

BACKGROUND

Meiosis produces haploid gametes from diploid progenitor cells. This reduction is achieved by two successive nuclear divisions after one round of DNA replication. Correct chromosome segregation during the first division depends on sister kinetochores being oriented toward the same spindle pole while homologous kinetochores must face opposite poles. Segregation during the second division depends on retention of sister chromatid cohesion between centromeres until the onset of anaphase II, which in Drosophila melanogaster depends on a protein called Mei-S332 that binds to centromeres.

RESULTS

We report the identification of two homologs of Mei-S332 in fission yeast using a knockout screen. Together with their fly ortholog they define a protein family conserved from fungi to mammals. The two identified genes, sgo1 and sgo2, are required for retention of sister centromere cohesion between meiotic divisions and kinetochore orientation during meiosis I, respectively. The amount of meiotic cohesin's Rec8 subunit retained at centromeres after meiosis I is reduced in Deltasgo1, but not in Deltasgo2, cells, and Sgo1 appears to regulate cleavage of Rec8 by separase. Both Sgo1 and Sgo2 proteins localize to centromere regions. The abundance of Sgo1 protein normally declines after the first meiotic division, but extending its expression by altering its 3'UTR sequences does not greatly affect meiosis II. Its mere presence within the cell might therefore be insufficient to protect centromeric cohesion.

CONCLUSIONS

A conserved protein family based on Mei-S332 has been identified. The two fission yeast homologs are implicated in meiosis I kinetochore orientation and retention of centromeric sister chromatid cohesion until meiosis II.

Isolation and Cytogenetic Characterization of Male Meiotic Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster

Proper segregation of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I is ensured by pairing of homologs and maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion. In male Drosophila melanogaster, meiosis is achiasmatic and homologs pair at limited chromosome regions called pairing sites. We screened for male meiotic mutants to identify genes required for normal pairing and disjunction of homologs. Nondisjunction of the sex and the fourth chromosomes in male meiosis was scored as a mutant phenotype. We screened 2306 mutagenized and 226 natural population-derived second and third chromosomes and obtained seven mutants representing different loci on the second chromosome and one on the third. Five mutants showed relatively mild effects (<10% nondisjunction). mei(2)yh149 and mei(2)yoh7134 affected both the sex and the fourth chromosomes, mei(2)yh217 produced possible sex chromosome-specific nondisjunction, and mei(2)yh15 and mei(2)yh137 produced fourth chromosome-specific nondisjunction. mei(2)yh137 was allelic to the teflon gene required for autosomal pairing. Three mutants exhibited severe defects, producing >10% nondisjunction of the sex and/or the fourth chromosomes. mei(2)ys91 (a new allele of the orientation disruptor gene) and mei(3)M20 induced precocious separation of sister chromatids as early as prometaphase I. mei(2)yh92 predominantly induced nondisjunction at meiosis I that appeared to be the consequence of failure of the separation of paired homologous chromosomes.

A genome-wide screen identifies genes required for centromeric cohesion

During meiosis, two chromosome segregation phases follow a single round of DNA replication. We identified factors required to establish this specialized cell cycle by examining meiotic chromosome segregation in a collection of yeast strains lacking all nonessential genes. This analysis revealed Sgo1, Chl4, and Iml3 to be important for retaining centromeric cohesin until the onset of anaphase II. Consistent with this role, Sgo1 localizes to centromeric regions but dissociates at the onset of anaphase II. The screen described here provides a comprehensive analysis of the genes required for the meiotic cell cycle and identifies three factors important for the stepwise loss of sister chromatid cohesion.

Meiotic recombination and chromosome segregation in Drosophila females

In this review, we describe the pathway for generating meiotic crossovers in Drosophila melanogaster females and how these events ensure the segregation of homologous chromosomes. As appears to be common to meiosis in most organisms, recombination is initiated with a double-strand break (DSB). The interesting differences between organisms appear to be associated with what chromosomal events are required for DSBs to form. In Drosophila females, the synaptonemal complex is required for most DSB formation. The repair of these breaks requires several DSB repair genes, some of which are meiosis-specific, and defects at this stage can have effects downstream on oocyte development. This has been suggested to result from a checkpoint-like signaling between the oocyte nucleus and gene products regulating oogenesis. Crossovers result from genetically controlled modifications to the DSB repair pathway. Finally, segregation of chromosomes joined by a chiasma requires a bipolar spindle. At least two kinesin motor proteins are required for the assembly of this bipolar spindle, and while the meiotic spindle lacks traditional centrosomes, some centrosome components are found at the spindle poles.

Meiotic cohesion requires accumulation of ORD on chromosomes before condensation

Cohesion between sister chromatids is a prerequisite for accurate chromosome segregation during mitosis and meiosis. To allow chromosome condensation during prophase, the connections that hold sister chromatids together must be maintained but still permit extensive chromatin compaction. In Drosophila, null mutations in the orientation disruptor (ord) gene lead to meiotic nondisjunction in males and females because cohesion is absent by the time that sister kinetochores make stable microtubule attachments. We provide evidence that ORD is concentrated within the extrachromosomal domains of the nuclei of Drosophila primary spermatocytes during early G2, but accumulates on the meiotic chromosomes by mid to late G2. Moreover, using fluorescence in situ hybridization to monitor cohesion directly, we show that cohesion defects first become detectable in ord(null) spermatocytes shortly after the time when wild-type ORD associates with the chromosomes. After condensation, ORD remains bound at the centromeres of wild-type spermatocytes and persists there until centromeric cohesion is released during anaphase II. Our results suggest that association of ORD with meiotic chromosomes during mid to late G2 is required to maintain sister-chromatid cohesion during prophase condensation and that retention of ORD at the centromeres after condensation ensures the maintenance of centromeric cohesion until anaphase II.

Disseminating the genome: joining, resolving, and separating sister chromatids during mitosis and meiosis

The separation of sister chromatids at the metaphase to anaphase transition is one of the most dramatic of all cellular events and is a crucial aspect of all sexual and asexual reproduction. The molecular basis for this process has until recently remained obscure. New research has identified proteins that hold sisters together while they are aligned on the metaphase plate. It has also shed insight into the mechanisms that dissolve sister chromatid cohesion during both mitosis and meiosis. These findings promise to provide insights into defects in chromosome segregation that occur in cancer cells and into the pathological pathways by which aneuploidy arises during meiosis.

The molecular basis of sister-chromatid cohesion

The replicated copies of each chromosome, the sister chromatids, are attached prior to their segregation in mitosis and meiosis. This association or cohesion is critical for each sister chromatid to bind to microtubules from opposite spindle poles and thus segregate away from each other at anaphase of mitosis or meiosis II. The cohesin protein complex is essential for cohesion in both mitosis and meiosis, and cleavage of one of the subunits is sufficient for loss of cohesion at anaphase. The localization of the cohesin complex and other cohesion proteins permits evaluation of the positions of sister-chromatid associations within the chromosome structure, as well as the relationship between cohesion and condensation. Recently, two key riddles in the mechanism of meiotic chromosome segregation have yielded to molecular answers. First, analysis of the cohesin complex in meiosis provides molecular support for the long-standing hypothesis that sister-chromatid cohesion links homologs in meiosis I by stabilizing chiasmata. Second, the isolation of the monopolin protein that controls kinetochore behavior in meiosis I defines a functional basis by which sister kinetochores are directed toward the same pole in meiosis I.

Fission yeast Bub1 is essential in setting up the meiotic pattern of chromosome segregation

In meiosis, sister-chromatids move to the same spindle pole during the first division (MI) and to opposite poles during the second division (MII). This requires that MI sister kinetochores are co-orientated and form an apparent single functional unit that only interacts with microtubules from one pole, and that sister-chromatids remain associated through their centromeres until anaphase II. Here we investigate the function of Bub1 and Mad2, which are components of the mitotic-spindle checkpoint, on chromosome segregation during meiosis. Both proteins are required to prevent the occurrence of non-disjunction events in MI, which is consistent with recent findings that components of the mitotic-spindle checkpoint also operate during meiosis. However, Bub1 has several functions that are not shared with Mad2. When the bub1 gene is deleted, sister chromatids often move to opposite spindle poles during MI, indicating that sister kinetochores are disunited. Furthermore, the cohesin Rec8 is never retained at centromeres at anaphase I and sister-chromatid cohesion is lost. Our results show that Bub1, besides its functions in monitoring chromosome attachment, is essential for two other significant aspects of MI - unification of sister kinetochores and retention of centromeric cohesion.

Characterization of vertebrate cohesin complexes and their regulation in prophase

In eukaryotes, sister chromatids remain connected from the time of their synthesis until they are separated in anaphase. This cohesion depends on a complex of proteins called cohesins. In budding yeast, the anaphase-promoting complex (APC) pathway initiates anaphase by removing cohesins from chromosomes. In vertebrates, cohesins dissociate from chromosomes already in prophase. To study their mitotic regulation we have purified two 14S cohesin complexes from human cells. Both complexes contain SMC1, SMC3, SCC1, and either one of the yeast Scc3p orthologs SA1 and SA2. SA1 is also a subunit of 14S cohesin in Xenopus. These complexes interact with PDS5, a protein whose fungal orthologs have been implicated in chromosome cohesion, condensation, and recombination. The bulk of SA1- and SA2-containing complexes and PDS5 are chromatin-associated until they become soluble from prophase to telophase. Reconstitution of this process in mitotic Xenopus extracts shows that cohesin dissociation does neither depend on cyclin B proteolysis nor on the presence of the APC. Cohesins can also dissociate from chromatin in the absence of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 activity. These results suggest that vertebrate cohesins are regulated by a novel prophase pathway which is distinct from the APC pathway that controls cohesins in yeast.

The reduction of chromosome number in meiosis is determined by properties built into the chromosomes

In meiosis I, two chromatids move to each spindle pole. Then, in meiosis II, the two are distributed, one to each future gamete. This requires that meiosis I chromosomes attach to the spindle differently than meiosis II chromosomes and that they regulate chromosome cohesion differently. We investigated whether the information that dictates the division type of the chromosome comes from the whole cell, the spindle, or the chromosome itself. Also, we determined when chromosomes can switch from meiosis I behavior to meiosis II behavior. We used a micromanipulation needle to fuse grasshopper spermatocytes in meiosis I to spermatocytes in meiosis II, and to move chromosomes from one spindle to the other. Chromosomes placed on spindles of a different meiotic division always behaved as they would have on their native spindle; e.g., a meiosis I chromosome attached to a meiosis II spindle in its normal fashion and sister chromatids moved together to the same spindle pole. We also showed that meiosis I chromosomes become competent meiosis II chromosomes in anaphase of meiosis I, but not before. The patterns for attachment to the spindle and regulation of cohesion are built into the chromosome itself. These results suggest that regulation of chromosome cohesion may be linked to differences in the arrangement of kinetochores in the two meiotic divisions.

Sister-chromatid cohesion via MEI-S332 and kinetochore assembly are separable functions of the Drosophila centromere

Attachment, or cohesion, between sister chromatids is essential for their proper segregation in mitosis and meiosis [1,2]. Sister chromatids are tightly apposed at their centromeric regions, but it is not known whether this is due to cohesion at the functional centromere or at flanking centric heterochromatin. The Drosophila MEI-S332 protein maintains sister-chromatid cohesion at the centromeric region [3]. By analyzing MEI-S332's localization requirements at the centromere on a set of minichromosome derivatives [4], we tested the role of heterochromatin and the relationship between cohesion and kinetochore formation in a complex centromere of a higher eukaryote. The frequency of MEI-S332 localization is decreased on minichromosomes with compromised inheritance, despite the consistent presence of two kinetochore proteins. Furthermore, MEI-S332 localization is not coincident with kinetochore outer-plate proteins, suggesting that it is located near the DNA. We conclude that MEI-S332 localization is driven by the functional centromeric chromatin, and binding of MEI-S332 is regulated independently of kinetochore formation. These results suggest that in higher eukaryotes cohesion is controlled by the functional centromere, and that, in contrast to yeast [5], the requirements for cohesion are separable from those for kinetochore assembly.

Visualizing the spindle checkpoint in Drosophila spermatocytes

The spindle assembly checkpoint detects defects in spindle structure or in the alignment of the chromosomes on the metaphase plate and delays the onset of anaphase until defects are corrected. Thus far, the evidence regarding the presence of a spindle checkpoint during meiosis in male Drosophila has been indirect and contradictory. On the one hand, chromosomes without pairing partners do not prevent meiosis progression. On the other hand, some conserved components of the spindle checkpoint machinery are expressed in these cells and behave as their homologue proteins do in systems with an active spindle checkpoint. To establish whether the spindle checkpoint is active in Drosophila spermatocytes we have followed meiosis progression by time-lapse microscopy under conditions where the checkpoint is likely to be activated. We have found that the presence of a relatively high number of misaligned chromosomes or a severe disruption of the meiotic spindle results in a significant delay in the time of entry into anaphase. These observations provide the first direct evidence substantiating the activity of a meiotic spindle checkpoint in male Drosophila.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae centromere protein Slk19p is required for two successive divisions during meiosis

Meiotic cell division includes two separate and distinct types of chromosome segregation. In the first segregational event the sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere; in the second the chromatids are separated. The factors that control the order of chromosome segregation during meiosis have not yet been identified but are thought to be confined to the centromere region. We showed that the centromere protein Slk19p is required for the proper execution of meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In its absence diploid cells skip meiosis I and execute meiosis II division. Inhibiting recombination does not correct this phenotype. Surprisingly, the initiation of recombination is apparently required for meiosis II division. Thus Slk19p appears to be part of the mechanism by which the centromere controls the order of meiotic divisions.

Chromosome cohesion, condensation, and separation

The faithful segregation of genetic information requires highly orchestrated changes of chromosome structure during the mitotic cell cycle. The linkage between duplicated sister DNAs is established during S phase and maintained throughout G2 phase (cohesion). In early mitosis, dramatic structural changes occur to produce metaphase chromosomes, each consisting of a pair of compacted sister chromatids (condensation). At anaphase onset, a signal is produced to disrupt the linkage between sister chromatids (separation), allowing them to be pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell. This review discusses our current understanding of the three stages of large-scale structural changes of chromosomes in eukaryotic cells. Recent genetic and biochemical studies have identified key components involved in these processes and started to uncover hitherto unexpected functional links between mitotic chromosome dynamics and other important chromosome functions.

Recombination and disjunction in female germ cells of Drosophila depend on the germline activity of the gene sex-lethal

Gametogenesis in males and females differs in many ways. An important difference in Drosophila is that recombination between homologous chromosomes occurs only in female meiosis. Here, we report that this process relies on the correct functioning of Sex-lethal (Sxl) which is primarily known as the master gene in somatic sex determination. Certain alleles of this gene (Sxl(fs)) disrupt the germline, but not the somatic function of Sxl and cause an arrest of germ cell development during cystocyte proliferation. Using dominant suppressor mutations that relieve this early block in Sxl(fs) mutant females, we discovered additional requirements of Sxl for normal meiotic differentiation of the oocyte. Females mutant for Sxl(fs) and carrying a suppressor become fertile, but pairing of homologous chromosomes and formation of chiasmata is severely perturbed, resulting in an almost complete lack of recombinants and a high incidence of non-disjunction events. Similar results were obtained when germline expression of wild-type Sxl was compromised by mutations in virilizer (vir), a positive regulator of Sxl. Ectopic expression of a Sxl transgene in premeiotic stages of male germline development, on the other hand, is not sufficient to allow recombination to take place, which suggests that Sxl does not have a discriminatory role in this female-specific process. We propose that Sxl performs at least two tasks in oogenesis: an ‘early’ function in formation of the egg chamber, and a ‘late’ function in progression of the meiotic cell cycle, suggesting that both events are coordinated by a common mechanism.

Meiotic chromosome dynamics dependent upon the rec8(+), rec10(+) and rec11(+) genes of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

During meiosis homologous chromosomes replicate once, pair, experience recombination, and undergo two rounds of segregation to produce haploid meiotic products. The rec8(+), rec10(+), and rec11(+) genes of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe exhibit similar specificities for meiotic recombination and rec8(+) is required for sister chromatid cohesion and homolog pairing. We applied cytological and genetic approaches to identify potential genetic interactions and to gauge the fidelity of meiotic chromosome segregation in the mutants. The rec8(+) gene was epistatic to rec10(+) and to rec11(+), but there was no clear epistatic relationship between rec10(+) and rec11(+). Reciprocal (crossover) recombination in the central regions of all three chromosomes was compromised in the rec mutants, but recombination near the telomeres was nearly normal. Each of the mutants also exhibited a high rate of aberrant segregation for all three chromosomes. The rec8 mutations affected mainly meiosis I segregation. Remarkably, the rec10 and rec11 mutations, which compromised recombination during meiosis I, affected mainly meiosis II segregation. We propose that these genes encode regulators or components of a "meiotic chromatid cohesion" pathway involved in establishing, maintaining, and appropriately releasing meiotic interactions between chromosomes. A model of synergistic interactions between sister chromatid cohesion and crossover position suggests how crossovers and cohesion help ensure the proper segregation of chromosomes in each of the meiotic divisions.

Chromatid cohesion during mitosis: lessons from meiosis

The equal distribution of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis is dependent on the maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion. In this commentary we review the evidence that, during meiosis, the mechanism underlying the cohesion of chromatids along their arms is different from that responsible for cohesion in the centromere region. We then argue that the chromatids on a mitotic chromosome are also tethered along their arms and in the centromere by different mechanisms, and that the functional action of these two mechanisms can be temporally separated under various conditions. Finally, we demonstrate that in the absence of a centromeric tether, arm cohesion is sufficient to maintain chromatid cohesion during prometaphase of mitosis. This finding provides a straightforward explanation for why mutants in proteins responsible for centromeric cohesion in Drosophila (e.g. ord, mei-s332) disrupt meiosis but not mitosis.

Mutations in the essential spindle checkpoint gene bub1 cause chromosome missegregation and fail to block apoptosis in Drosophila

We have characterized the Drosophila mitotic checkpoint control protein Bub1 and obtained mutations in the bub1 gene. Drosophila Bub1 localizes strongly to the centromere/kinetochore of mitotic and meiotic chromosomes that have not yet reached the metaphase plate. Animals homozygous for P-element-induced, near-null mutations of bub1 die during late larval/pupal stages due to severe mitotic abnormalities indicative of a bypass of checkpoint function. These abnormalities include accelerated exit from metaphase and chromosome missegregation and fragmentation. Chromosome fragmentation possibly leads to the significantly elevated levels of apoptosis seen in mutants. We have also investigated the relationship between Bub1 and other kinetochore components. We show that Bub1 kinase activity is not required for phosphorylation of 3F3/2 epitopes at prophase/prometaphase, but is needed for 3F3/2 dephosphorylation at metaphase. Neither 3F3/2 dephosphorylation nor loss of Bub1 from the kinetochore is a prerequisite for anaphase entry. Bub1's localization to the kinetochore does not depend on the products of the genes zw10, rod, polo, or fizzy, indicating that the kinetochore is constructed from several independent subassemblies.

Identification of novel Drosophila meiotic genes recovered in a P-element screen

The segregation of homologous chromosomes from one another is the essence of meiosis. In many organisms, accurate segregation is ensured by the formation of chiasmata resulting from crossing over. Drosophila melanogaster females use this type of recombination-based system, but they also have mechanisms for segregating achiasmate chromosomes with high fidelity. We describe a P-element mutagenesis and screen in a sensitized genetic background to detect mutations that impair meiotic chromosome pairing, recombination, or segregation. Our screen identified two new recombination-deficient mutations: mei-P22, which fully eliminates meiotic recombination, and mei-P26, which decreases meiotic exchange by 70% in a polar fashion. We also recovered an unusual allele of the ncd gene, whose wild-type product is required for proper structure and function of the meiotic spindle. However, the screen yielded primarily mutants specifically defective in the segregation of achiasmate chromosomes. Although most of these are alleles of previously undescribed genes, five were in the known genes alphaTubulin67C, CycE, push, and Trl. The five mutations in known genes produce novel phenotypes for those genes.

Rec8p, a meiotic recombination and sister chromatid cohesion phosphoprotein of the Rad21p family conserved from fission yeast to humans

Our work and that of others defined mitosis-specific (Rad21 subfamily) and meiosis-specific (Rec8 subfamily) proteins involved in sister chromatid cohesion in several eukaryotes, including humans. Mutation of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe rec8 gene was previously shown to confer a number of meiotic phenotypes, including strong reduction of recombination frequencies in the central region of chromosome III, absence of linear element polymerization, reduced pairing of homologous chromosomes, reduced sister chromatid cohesion, aberrant chromosome segregation, defects in spore formation, and reduced spore viability. Here we extend the description of recombination reduction to the central regions of chromosomes I and II. We show at the protein level that expression of rec8 is meiosis specific and that Rec8p localizes to approximately 100 foci per prophase nucleus. Rec8p was present in an unphosphorylated form early in meiotic prophase but was phosphorylated prior to meiosis I, as demonstrated by analysis of the mei4 mutant blocked before meiosis I. Evidence for the persistence of Rec8p beyond meiosis I was obtained by analysis of the mutant mes1 blocked before meiosis II. A human gene, which we designate hrec8, showed significant primary sequence similarity to rec8 and was mapped to chromosome 14. High mRNA expression of mouse and human rec8 genes was found only in germ line cells, specifically in testes and, interestingly, in spermatids. hrec8 was also expressed at a low level in the thymus. Sequence similarity and testis-specific expression indicate evolutionarily conserved functions of Rec8p in meiosis. Possible roles of Rec8p in the integration of different meiotic events are discussed.

Sister chromatid cohesion in mitosis

Sister chromatid cohesion is essential for accurate chromosome segregation during the cell cycle. Newly identified structural proteins are required for sister chromatid cohesion and there may be a link in some organisms between the processes of cohesion and condensation. Proteins that induce and regulate the separation of sister chromatids have also been recently identified. (This review is an updated version of one that was published in Current Opinion in Cell Biology 1998, 10:769-775.)

Mammalian centromeres: DNA sequence, protein composition, and role in cell cycle progression

The centromere is a specialized region of the eukaryotic chromosome that is responsible for directing chromosome movements in mitosis and for coordinating the progression of mitotic events at the crucial transition between metaphase and anaphase. In this review, we will focus on recent advances in the understanding of centromere composition at the protein and DNA level and of the role of centromeres in sister-chromatid cohesion and mitotic checkpoint control.

Maintenance of sister-chromatid cohesion at the centromere by the Drosophila MEI-S332 protein

Sister-chromatid cohesion is essential for the faithful segregation of chromosomes during cell division. Recently biochemical analysis with Xenopus extracts suggests that cohesion is established during S phase by a cohesion complex but that other proteins must maintain it in mitosis. The Drosophila melanogaster MEI-S332 protein is present on centromeres in mitosis and meiosis and is essential for cohesion at the centromeres in meiosis II. Here, we analyze the timing of MEI-S332 assembly onto centromeres and the functional domains of the MEI-S332 protein. We find that MEI-S332 is first detectable on chromosomes during prometaphase, and this localization is independent of microtubules. MEI-S332 contains two separable functional domains, as mutations within these domains show intragenic complementation. The carboxy-terminal basic region is required for chromosomal localization. The amino-terminal coiled-coil domain may facilitate protein-protein interactions between MEI-S332 and male meiotic proteins. MEI-S332 interacts with itself in the yeast two-hybrid assay and in immunoprecipitates from Drosophila oocyte and embryo extracts. Thus it appears that MEI-S332 assembles into a multimeric protein complex that localizes to centromeric regions during prometaphase and is required for the maintenance of sister-chromatid cohesion until anaphase, rather than its establishment in S phase.

Genetic interactions between mei-S332 and ord in the control of sister-chromatid cohesion

The Drosophila mei-S332 and ord gene products are essential for proper sister-chromatid cohesion during meiosis in both males and females. We have constructed flies that contain null mutations for both genes. Double-mutant flies are viable and fertile. Therefore, the lack of an essential role for either gene in mitotic cohesion cannot be explained by compensatory activity of the two proteins during mitotic divisions. Analysis of sex chromosome segregation in the double mutant indicates that ord is epistatic to mei-S332. We demonstrate that ord is not required for MEI-S332 protein to localize to meiotic centromeres. Although overexpression of either protein in a wild-type background does not interfere with normal meiotic chromosome segregation, extra ORD+ protein in mei-S332 mutant males enhances nondisjunction at meiosis II. Our results suggest that a balance between the activity of mei-S332 and ord is required for proper regulation of meiotic cohesion and demonstrate that additional proteins must be functioning to ensure mitotic sister-chromatid cohesion.

Sister chromatid cohesion in mitosis

Sister chromatid cohesion is essential for accurate chromosome segregation during the cell cycle. Newly identified structural proteins are required for sister chromatid cohesion and there may be a link in some organisms between the processes of cohesion and condensation. Proteins that induce and regulate the separation of sister chromatids have also been recently identified.

The cohesion protein MEI-S332 localizes to condensed meiotic and mitotic centromeres until sister chromatids separate

The Drosophila MEI-S332 protein has been shown to be required for the maintenance of sister-chromatid cohesion in male and female meiosis. The protein localizes to the centromeres during male meiosis when the sister chromatids are attached, and it is no longer detectable after they separate. Drosophila melanogaster male meiosis is atypical in several respects, making it important to define MEI-S332 behavior during female meiosis, which better typifies meiosis in eukaryotes. We find that MEI-S332 localizes to the centromeres of prometaphase I chromosomes in oocytes, remaining there until it is delocalized at anaphase II. By using oocytes we were able to obtain sufficient material to investigate the fate of MEI-S332 after the metaphase II-anaphase II transition. The levels of MEI-S332 protein are unchanged after the completion of meiosis, even when translation is blocked, suggesting that the protein dissociates from the centromeres but is not degraded at the onset of anaphase II. Unexpectedly, MEI-S332 is present during embryogenesis, localizes onto the centromeres of mitotic chromosomes, and is delocalized from anaphase chromosomes. Thus, MEI-S332 associates with the centromeres of both meiotic and mitotic chromosomes and dissociates from them at anaphase.

Chiasmata, crossovers, and meiotic chromosome segregation

Meiotic recombination events are probably critical for the completion of several meiotic processes. In addition, recombination is likely to be involved in the events that lead up to synapsis of homologues in meiotic prophase. Recombination events that ultimately become resolved as exchanges are needed for the formation of chiasmata. Chiasmata maintain the association of paired homologues following loss of the synaptonemal complex and participate in the mechanism that signals that the bivalent has attached to the spindle in a bipolar orientation that will result in meiosis I disjunction.

Protein-protein interactions in the synaptonemal complex

In mammalian systems, an approximately M(r) 30,000 Cor1 protein has been identified as a major component of the meiotic prophase chromosome cores, and a M(r) 125,000 Syn1 protein is present between homologue cores where they are synapsed and form the synaptonemal complex (SC). Immunolocalization of these proteins during meiosis suggests possible homo- and heterotypic interactions between the two as well as possible interactions with yet unrecognized proteins. We used the two-hybrid system in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to detect possible protein-protein associations. Segments of hamsters Cor1 and Syn1 proteins were tested in various combinations for homo- and heterotypic interactions. In the cause of Cor1, homotypic interactions involve regions capable of coiled-coil formation, observation confirmed by in vitro affinity coprecipitation experiments. The two-hybrid assay detects no interaction of Cor1 protein with central and C-terminal fragments of Syn1 protein and no homotypic interactions involving these fragments of Syn1. Hamster Cor1 and Syn1 proteins both associate with the human ubiquitin-conjugation enzyme Hsubc9 as well as with the hamster Ubc9 homologue. The interactions between SC proteins and the Ubc9 protein may be significant for SC disassembly, which coincides with the repulsion of homologs by late prophase I, and also for the termination of sister centromere cohesiveness at anaphase II.

Mutational analysis of the Drosophila sister-chromatid cohesion protein ORD and its role in the maintenance of centromeric cohesion

The ord gene is required for proper segregation of all chromosomes in both male and female Drosophila meiosis. Here we describe the isolation of a null ord allele and examine the consequences of ablating ord function. Cytologically, meiotic sister-chromatid cohesion is severely disrupted in flies lacking ORD protein. Moreover, the frequency of missegregation in genetic tests is consistent with random segregation of chromosomes through both meiotic divisions, suggesting that sister cohesion may be completely abolished. However, only a slight decrease in viability is observed for ord null flies, indicating that ORD function is not essential for cohesion during somatic mitosis. In addition, we do not observe perturbation of germ-line mitotic divisions in flies lacking ORD activity. Our analysis of weaker ord alleles suggests that ORD is required for proper centromeric cohesion after arm cohesion is released at the metaphase I/anaphase I transition. Finally, although meiotic cohesion is abolished in the ord null fly, chromosome loss is not appreciable. Therefore, ORD activity appears to promote centromeric cohesion during meiosis II but is not essential for kinetochore function during anaphase.

The product of proliferation disrupter is concentrated at centromeres and required for mitotic chromosome condensation and cell proliferation in Drosophila

Homozygosity for a null mutation in the proliferation disrupter (prod) gene of Drosophila causes decreased mitotic index, defects of anaphase chromatid separation, and imperfect chromosome condensation in larval neuroblasts and other proliferating cell populations. The defective condensation is especially obvious near the centromeres. Mutant larvae show slow growth and massive cell death in proliferating cell populations, followed by late larval lethality. Loss of prod function in mitotic clones leads to the arrest of oogenesis in the ovary and defective cuticle formation in imaginal disc derivatives. The prod gene encodes a novel 301-amino-acid protein that is ubiquitously expressed and highly concentrated at the centric heterochromatin of the second and third mitotic chromosomes, as well as at > 400 euchromatic loci on polytene chromosomes. We propose that Prod is a nonhistone protein essential for chromosome condensation and that the chromosomal and developmental defects are caused by incomplete centromere condensation in prod mutants.

The Drosophila genes grauzone and cortex are necessary for proper female meiosis

In Drosophila, normal female meiosis arrests at metaphase I. After meiotic arrest is released by egg activation, the two meiotic divisions are rapidly completed, even in unfertilized eggs. Since little is known about the regulation of the meiotic cell cycle after the meiotic arrest, we screened for mutants that arrest in meiosis. Here we describe the phenotype of eggs laid by sterile mothers mutant for either grauzone or cortex. These eggs arrest in metaphase of meiosis II, and although they can enter into an aberrant anaphase II, they never exit meiosis. Prolonged sister-chromatid cohesion is not the cause of this arrest, since a premature release of sister cohesion does not rescue the meiotic arrest of cortex eggs. Aberrant chromosome segregation at meiosis I was the earliest observable defect, suggesting that grauzone and cortex are first required immediately after egg activation. The cortical microtubules are also defective, remaining in a pre-activated state in activated mutant eggs. The mutations had no observable effect on either male meiosis or mitosis. We believe these genes will provide insight into the developmental regulation of meiosis in a genetically tractable organism.