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Abstract
AbstractChondroitin sulfate (CS) is a ubiquitous component of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of animal tissues. CS chains are covalently bound to a core protein to form a proteoglycan, which is involved in various biological events including cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Their functions are executed by regulating the activity of bioactive proteins, such as growth factors, morphogens, and cytokines. This review article focuses on the catabolism of CS. This catabolism predominantly occurs in lysosomes to control the activity of CS-proteoglycans. CS chains are fragmented by endo-type glycosidase(s), and the resulting oligosaccharides are then cleaved into monosaccharide moieties from the nonreducing end by exoglycosidases and sulfatases. However, the endo-type glycosidase responsible for the systemic catabolism of CS has not yet been identified. Based on recent advances in studies on hyaluronidases, which were previously considered to be hyaluronan-degrading enzymes, it appears that they recognize CS as their original substrate rather than hyaluronan and acquired hyaluronan-hydrolyzing activity at a relatively late stage of evolution.
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Abstract
Even after 20 years of granting orphan status for chondroitinase by US FDA, there is no visible outcome in terms of clinical use. The reasons are many. One of them could be lack of awareness regarding the biological application of the enzyme. The biological activity of chondroitinase is due to its ability to act on chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). CSPGs are needed for normal functioning of the body. An increase or decrease in the level of CSPGs results in various pathological conditions. Chondroitinase is useful in conditions where there is an increase in the level of CSPGs, namely spinal cord injury, vitreous attachment and cancer. Over the last decade, various animal studies showed that chondroitinase could be a good drug candidate. Research focusing on developing a suitable carrier system for delivering chondroitinase needs to be carried out so that pharmacological activity observed in vitro and preclinical studies could be translated to clinical use. Further studies on distribution of chondroitinase as well need to be focused so that chondroitinase with desired attributes could be discovered. The present review article discusses about various biological applications of chondroitinase, drug delivery systems to deliver the enzyme and distribution of chondroitinase among microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narayanan Kasinathan
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology , Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University , Manipal , Karnataka , India
| | - Subrahmanyam M Volety
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology , Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University , Manipal , Karnataka , India
| | - Venkata Rao Josyula
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology , Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University , Manipal , Karnataka , India
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Schmaus A, Sleeman JP. Hyaluronidase-1 expression promotes lung metastasis in syngeneic mouse tumor models without affecting accumulation of small hyaluronan oligosaccharides in tumor interstitial fluid. Glycobiology 2014; 25:258-68. [PMID: 25354852 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwu106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhanced levels in tumors of hyaluronan, a glycosaminoglycan component of the extracellular matrix, and hyaluronidases such as hyaluronidase-1 (Hyal1) that degrade hyaluronan have both been linked to poor prognosis and metastasis, suggesting that the turnover of hyaluronan might contribute to tumor progression. Small hyaluronan oligosaccharides (sHA) can accumulate in tumor interstitial fluid (TIF), and have been implicated in a number of processes that drive tumor progression, including MMP expression and angiogenesis. The properties of Hyal1 suggest that it might contribute to the degradation of hyaluronan in tumors and the subsequent accumulation of sHA. Accumulation of Hyal1-produced sHA may therefore account for the association between Hyal1 and metastasis. Here we have investigated this hypothesis using mouse syngeneic breast tumor models. Specifically, we modulated Hyal1 expression and activity either in the tumor cells themselves, or in the stromal compartment by using Hyal1 knockout (KO) mice. These approaches did not change sHA levels in TIF, but nevertheless fostered metastasis to the lung in some of the models used in the study. Together, these data suggest that Hyal1 can promote lung metastasis in a manner that is not dependent on altered accumulation of sHA in TIF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Schmaus
- Medical Faculty Mannheim, Centre for Biomedicine and Medical Technology Mannheim (CBTM), University of Heidelberg, Mannheim 68167, Germany Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Campus Nord, Institut für Toxikologie und Genetik, Postfach 3640, Karlsruhe 76021, Germany
| | - Jonathan P Sleeman
- Medical Faculty Mannheim, Centre for Biomedicine and Medical Technology Mannheim (CBTM), University of Heidelberg, Mannheim 68167, Germany Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Campus Nord, Institut für Toxikologie und Genetik, Postfach 3640, Karlsruhe 76021, Germany
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Han W, Wang W, Zhao M, Sugahara K, Li F. A novel eliminase from a marine bacterium that degrades hyaluronan and chondroitin sulfate. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:27886-98. [PMID: 25122756 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.590752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyases cleave glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in an eliminative mechanism and are important tools for the structural analysis and oligosaccharide preparation of GAGs. Various GAG lyases have been identified from terrestrial but not marine organisms even though marine animals are rich in GAGs with unique structures and functions. Herein we isolated a novel GAG lyase for the first time from the marine bacterium Vibrio sp. FC509 and then recombinantly expressed and characterized it. It showed strong lyase activity toward hyaluronan (HA) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) and was designated as HA and CS lyase (HCLase). It exhibited the highest activities to both substrates at pH 8.0 and 0.5 m NaCl at 30 °C. Its activity toward HA was less sensitive to pH than its CS lyase activity. As with most other marine enzymes, HCLase is a halophilic enzyme and very stable at temperatures from 0 to 40 °C for up to 24 h, but its activity is independent of divalent metal ions. The specific activity of HCLase against HA and CS reached a markedly high level of hundreds of thousands units/mg of protein under optimum conditions. The HCLase-resistant tetrasaccharide Δ(4,5)HexUAα1-3GalNAc(6-O-sulfate)β1-4GlcUA(2-O-sulfate)β1-3GalNAc(6-O-sulfate) was isolated from CS-D, the structure of which indicated that HCLase could not cleave the galactosaminidic linkage bound to 2-O-sulfated d-glucuronic acid (GlcUA) in CS chains. Site-directed mutagenesis indicated that HCLase may work via a catalytic mechanism in which Tyr-His acts as the Brønsted base and acid. Thus, the identification of HCLase provides a useful tool for HA- and CS-related research and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjun Han
- From the National Glycoengineering Research Center, and State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China and
| | - Wenshuang Wang
- From the National Glycoengineering Research Center, and State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China and
| | - Mei Zhao
- From the National Glycoengineering Research Center, and State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China and
| | - Kazuyuki Sugahara
- Proteoglycan Signaling and Therapeutics Research Group, Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Life Science, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Fuchuan Li
- From the National Glycoengineering Research Center, and State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China and
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Metabolism of cartilage proteoglycans in health and disease. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:452315. [PMID: 25105124 PMCID: PMC4106107 DOI: 10.1155/2014/452315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage proteoglycans are extracellular macromolecules with complex structure, composed of a core protein onto which a variable number of glycosaminoglycan chains are attached. Their biosynthesis at the glycosaminoglycan level involves a great number of sugar transferases well-orchestrated in Golgi apparatus. Similarly, their degradation, either extracellular or intracellular in lysosomes, involves a large number of hydrolases. A deficiency or malfunction of any of the enzymes participating in cartilage proteoglycan metabolism may lead to severe disease state. This review summarizes the findings regarding this topic.
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Xia X, Liu R, Li Y, Xue S, Liu Q, Jiang X, Zhang W, Ding K. Cloning and molecular characterization of scorpion Buthus martensi venom hyaluronidases: a novel full-length and diversiform noncoding isoforms. Gene 2014; 547:338-45. [PMID: 24973698 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.06.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Hyaluronidase is a common component of scorpion venom and has been considered as "spreading factor" that promotes a fast penetration of the venom in the anaphylactic reaction. In the current study, a novel full-length of hyaluronidase BmHYI and three noncoding isoforms of BmHYII, BmHYIII and BmHYIV were cloned by using a combined strategy based on peptide sequencing and Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE). BmHYI has 410 amino acid residues containing the catalytic, positional and five potential N-glycosylation sites. The deduced protein sequence of BmHYI shares significant identity with venom hyaluronidases from bees and snakes. The phylogenetic analysis showed early divergence and independent evolution of BmHYI from other hyaluronidases. An extraordinarily high level of sequence similarity was detected among four sequences. But, BmHYII, BmHYIII and BmHYIV were short of stop-codon in the open reading frame and poly(A) signal in the 3' end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xichao Xia
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China.
| | - Rongzhi Liu
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Yi Li
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Shipeng Xue
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Qingchun Liu
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Xiao Jiang
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Wenjuan Zhang
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
| | - Ke Ding
- Basal Medical College of Nanyang Medical University, Nanyang, 473041 Henan Province, China
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Lawrence R, Brown JR, Lorey F, Dickson PI, Crawford BE, Esko JD. Glycan-based biomarkers for mucopolysaccharidoses. Mol Genet Metab 2014; 111:73-83. [PMID: 23958290 PMCID: PMC3769472 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2013.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) result from attenuation or loss of enzyme activities required for lysosomal degradation of the glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronan, heparan sulfate, chondroitin/dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate. This review provides a summary of glycan biomarkers that have been used to characterize animal models of MPS, for diagnosis of patients, and for monitoring therapy based on hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy. Recent advances have focused on the non-reducing terminus of the glycosaminoglycans that accumulate as biomarkers, using a combination of enzymatic digestion with bacterial enzymes followed by quantitative liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. These new methods provide a simple, rapid diagnostic strategy that can be applied to samples of urine, blood, cerebrospinal fluid, cultured cells and dried blood spots from newborn infants. Analysis of the non-reducing end glycans provides a method for monitoring enzyme replacement and substrate reduction therapies and serves as a discovery tool for uncovering novel biomarkers and new forms of mucopolysaccharidoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Lawrence
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | | | - Fred Lorey
- Genetic Disease Screening Program, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
| | - Patricia I Dickson
- Department of Pediatrics, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA, Torrance, CA 90502, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey D Esko
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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Mikami T, Kitagawa H. Biosynthesis and function of chondroitin sulfate. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2013; 1830:4719-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sugiura N, Ikeda M, Shioiri T, Yoshimura M, Kobayashi M, Watanabe H. Chondroitinase from baculovirus Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus and chondroitin sulfate from silkworm Bombyx mori. Glycobiology 2013; 23:1520-30. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwt082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Altgärde N, Nilebäck E, de Battice L, Pashkuleva I, Reis RL, Becher J, Möller S, Schnabelrauch M, Svedhem S. Probing the biofunctionality of biotinylated hyaluronan and chondroitin sulfate by hyaluronidase degradation and aggrecan interaction. Acta Biomater 2013; 9:8158-66. [PMID: 23747326 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2013.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Molecular interactions involving glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are important for biological processes in the extracellular matrix (ECM) and at cell surfaces, and also in biotechnological applications. Enzymes in the ECM constantly modulate the molecular structure and the amount of GAGs in our tissues. Specifically, the changeable sulfation patterns of many GAGs are expected to be important in interactions with proteins. Biotinylation is a convenient method for immobilizing molecules to surfaces. When studying interactions at the molecular, cell and tissue level, the native properties of the immobilized molecule, i.e. its biofunctionality, need to be retained upon immobilization. Here, the GAGs hyaluronan (HA) and chondroitin sulfate (CS), and synthetically sulfated derivatives of the two, were immobilized using biotin-streptavidin binding. The degree of biotinylation and the placement of biotin groups (end-on/side-on) were varied. The introduction of biotin groups could have unwanted effects on the studied molecule, but this aspect that is not always straightforward to evaluate. Hyaluronidase, an enzyme that degrades HA and CS in the ECM, was investigated as a probe to evaluate the biofunctionality of the immobilized GAGs, using both quartz crystal microbalance and high-performance liquid chromatography. Our results showed that end-on biotinylated HA was efficiently degraded by hyaluronidase, whereas already a low degree of side-on biotinylation destroyed the degrading ability of the enzyme. Synthetically introduced sulfate groups also had this effect. Hence hyaluronidase degradation is a cheap and easy way to investigate how molecular function is influenced by the introduced functional groups. Binding experiments with the proteoglycan aggrecan emphasized the influence of protein size and surface orientation of the GAGs for in-depth studies of GAG behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noomi Altgärde
- Department of Applied Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden.
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Mass preparation of oligosaccharides by the hydrolysis of chondroitin sulfate polysaccharides with a subcritical water microreaction system. Carbohydr Res 2013; 371:16-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2013.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Abstract
Hyaluronan is a high-molecular-weight glycosaminoglycan (GAG) prominent in the extracellular matrix. Emerging relatively late in evolution, it may have evolved to evade immune recognition. Chondroitin is a more ancient GAG and a possible hyaluronan precursor. Epimerization of a 4-hydroxyl in N-acetylgalactosamine in chondroitin to N-acetylglucosamine of hyaluronan is the only structural difference other than chain length between these two polymers. The axial 4-hydroxyl group extends out perpendicular from the equatorial plane of N-acetylgalactosamine in chondroitin. We suspect that this hydroxyl is a prime target for immune recognition. Conversion of a thumbs-up hydroxyl group into a thumbs-down position in the plane of the sugar endows hyaluronan with the ability to avoid immune recognition. Chitin is another potential precursor to hyaluronan. But regardless whether of chondroitin or of chitin origin, an ancient chondroitinase enzyme sequence seems to have been commandeered to catalyze the cleavage of the new hyaluronan substrate. The evolution of six hyaluronidase-like sequences in the human genome from a single chondroitinase as found in Caenorhabditis elegans can now be traced. Confirming our previous predictions, two duplication events occurred, with three hyaluronidase-like sequences occurring in the genome of Ciona intestinalis (sea squirt), the earliest known chordate. This was probably followed by en masse duplication, with six such genes present in the genome of zebra fish onwards. These events occurred, however, much earlier than predicted. It is also apparent on an evolutionary time scale that in several species, this gene family is continuing to evolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonei B Csoka
- Department of Anatomy, Howard University, Washington, DC 20053, USA
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64
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Hyaluronidases Have Strong Hydrolytic Activity toward Chondroitin 4-Sulfate Comparable to that for Hyaluronan. Biomolecules 2012; 2:549-63. [PMID: 24970149 PMCID: PMC4030862 DOI: 10.3390/biom2040549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2012] [Revised: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) chains are involved in the regulation of various biological processes. However, the mechanism underlying the catabolism of CS is not well understood. Hyaluronan (HA)-degrading enzymes, the hyaluronidases, are assumed to act at the initial stage of the degradation process, because HA is similar in structure to nonsulfated CS, chondroitin (Chn). Although human hyaluronidase-1 (HYAL1) and testicular hyaluronidase (SPAM1) can degrade not only HA but also CS, they are assumed to digest CS to only a limited extent. In this study, the hydrolytic activities of HYAL1 and SPAM1 toward CS-A, CS-C, Chn, and HA were compared. HYAL1 depolymerized CS-A and HA to a similar extent. SPAM1 degraded CS-A, Chn, and HA to a similar extent. CS is widely distributed from very primitive organisms to humans, whereas HA has been reported to be present only in vertebrates with the single exception of a mollusk. Therefore, a genuine substrate of hyaluronidases appears to be CS as well as HA.
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Kaneiwa T, Miyazaki A, Kogawa R, Mizumoto S, Sugahara K, Yamada S. Identification of amino acid residues required for the substrate specificity of human and mouse chondroitin sulfate hydrolase (conventional hyaluronidase-4). J Biol Chem 2012; 287:42119-28. [PMID: 23086929 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.360693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human hyaluronidase-4 (hHYAL4), a member of the hyaluronidase family, has no hyaluronidase activity, but is a chondroitin sulfate (CS)-specific endo-β-N-acetylgalactosaminidase. The expression of hHYAL4 is not ubiquitous but restricted to placenta, skeletal muscle, and testis, suggesting that hHYAL4 is not involved in the systemic catabolism of CS, but rather has specific functions in particular organs or tissues. To elucidate the function of hyaluronidase-4 in vivo, mouse hyaluronidase-4 (mHyal4) was characterized. mHyal4 was also demonstrated to be a CS-specific endo-β-N-acetylgalactosaminidase. However, mHyal4 and hHYAL4 differed in the sulfate groups they recognized. Although hHYAL4 strongly preferred GlcUA(2-O-sulfate)-GalNAc(6-O-sulfate)-containing sequences typical in CS-D, where GlcUA represents d-glucuronic acid, mHyal4 depolymerized various CS isoforms to a similar extent, suggesting broad substrate specificity. To identify the amino acid residues responsible for this difference, a series of human/mouse HYAL4 chimeric proteins and HYAL4 point mutants were generated, and their preference for substrates was investigated. A combination of the amino acid residues at 261-265 and glutamine at 305 was demonstrated to be essential for the enzymatic activity as well as substrate specificity of mHyal4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Kaneiwa
- Laboratory of Proteoglycan Signaling and Therapeutics, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Life Science, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
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66
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Mikami T, Koyama S, Yabuta Y, Kitagawa H. Chondroitin sulfate is a crucial determinant for skeletal muscle development/regeneration and improvement of muscular dystrophies. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:38531-42. [PMID: 23007393 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.336925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle formation and regeneration require myoblast fusion to form multinucleated myotubes or myofibers, yet their molecular regulation remains incompletely understood. We show here that the levels of extra- and/or pericellular chondroitin sulfate (CS) chains in differentiating C2C12 myoblast culture are dramatically diminished at the stage of extensive syncytial myotube formation. Forced down-regulation of CS, but not of hyaluronan, levels enhanced myogenic differentiation in vitro. This characteristic CS reduction seems to occur through a cell-autonomous mechanism that involves HYAL1, a known catabolic enzyme for hyaluronan and CS. In vivo injection of a bacterial CS-degrading enzyme boosted myofiber regeneration in a mouse cardiotoxin-induced injury model and ameliorated dystrophic pathology in mdx muscles. Our data suggest that the control of CS abundance is a promising new therapeutic approach for the treatment of skeletal muscle injury and progressive muscular dystrophies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadahisa Mikami
- Department of Biochemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
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Zeng Y, Ebong EE, Fu BM, Tarbell JM. The structural stability of the endothelial glycocalyx after enzymatic removal of glycosaminoglycans. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43168. [PMID: 22905223 PMCID: PMC3419189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale It is widely believed that glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and bound plasma proteins form an interconnected gel-like structure on the surface of endothelial cells (the endothelial glycocalyx layer–EGL) that is stabilized by the interaction of its components. However, the structural organization of GAGs and proteins and the contribution of individual components to the stability of the EGL are largely unknown. Objective To evaluate the hypothesis that the interconnected gel-like glycocalyx would collapse when individual GAG components were almost completely removed by a specific enzyme. Methods and Results Using confocal microscopy, we observed that the coverage and thickness of heparan sulfate (HS), chondroitin sulfate (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA), and adsorbed albumin were similar, and that the thicknesses of individual GAGs were spatially nonuniform. The individual GAGs were degraded by specific enzymes in a dose-dependent manner, and decreased much more in coverage than in thickness. Removal of HS or HA did not result in cleavage or collapse of any of the remaining components. Simultaneous removal of CS and HA by chondroitinase did not affect HS, but did reduce adsorbed albumin, although the effect was not large. Conclusion All GAGs and adsorbed proteins are well inter-mixed within the structure of the EGL, but the GAG components do not interact with one another. The GAG components do provide binding sites for albumin. Our results provide a new view of the organization of the endothelial glycocalyx layer and provide the first demonstration of the interaction between individual GAG components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zeng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
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Chondroitin sulfate-specific novel hydrolase in human. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 749:47-56. [PMID: 22695837 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3381-1_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Gushulak L, Hemming R, Martin D, Seyrantepe V, Pshezhetsky A, Triggs-Raine B. Hyaluronidase 1 and β-hexosaminidase have redundant functions in hyaluronan and chondroitin sulfate degradation. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:16689-97. [PMID: 22451654 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.350447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyaluronan (HA), a member of the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) family, is a critical component of the extracellular matrix. A model for HA degradation that invokes the activity of both hyaluronidases and exoglycosidases has been advanced. However, no in vivo studies have been done to determine the extent to which these enzymes contribute to HA breakdown. Herein, we used mouse models to investigate the contributions of the endoglycosidase HYAL1 and the exoglycosidase β-hexosaminidase to the lysosomal degradation of HA. We employed histochemistry and fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis to determine the degree of HA accumulation in mice deficient in one or both enzyme activities. Global HA accumulation was present in mice deficient in both enzymes, with the highest levels found in the lymph node and liver. Chondroitin, a GAG similar in structure to HA, also broadly accumulated in mice deficient in both enzymes. Accumulation of chondroitin sulfate derivatives was detected in mice deficient in both enzymes, as well as in β-hexosaminidase-deficient mice, indicating that both enzymes play a significant role in chondroitin sulfate breakdown. Extensive accumulation of HA and chondroitin when both enzymes are lacking was not observed in mice deficient in only one of these enzymes, suggesting that HYAL1 and β-hexosaminidase are functionally redundant in HA and chondroitin breakdown. Furthermore, accumulation of sulfated chondroitin in tissues provides in vivo evidence that both HYAL1 and β-hexosaminidase cleave chondroitin sulfate, but it is a preferred substrate for β-hexosaminidase. These studies provide in vivo evidence to support and extend existing knowledge of GAG breakdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Gushulak
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 0J9, Canada
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Lawrence R, Brown JR, Al-Mafraji K, Lamanna WC, Beitel JR, Boons GJ, Esko JD, Crawford BE. Disease-specific non-reducing end carbohydrate biomarkers for mucopolysaccharidoses. Nat Chem Biol 2012; 8:197-204. [PMID: 22231271 PMCID: PMC3262053 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A considerable need exists for improved biomarkers for differential diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring of therapeutic interventions for mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), inherited metabolic disorders that involve lysosomal storage of glycosaminoglycans. Here we report a simple, reliable method based on the detection of abundant nonreducing ends of the glycosaminoglycans that accumulate in cells, blood and urine of individuals with MPS. In this method, glycosaminoglycans are enzymatically depolymerized, releasing unique mono-, di- or trisaccharides from the nonreducing ends of the chains. The composition of the released mono- and oligosaccharides depends on the nature of the lysosomal enzyme deficiency, and therefore they serve as diagnostic biomarkers. Analysis by LC/MS allowed qualitative and quantitative assessment of the biomarkers in biological samples. We provide a simple conceptual scheme for diagnosing MPS in uncharacterized samples and a method to monitor efficacy of enzyme replacement therapy or other forms of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Lawrence
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Jillian R. Brown
- Zacharon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 5626 Oberlin Drive, San Diego CA 92121
| | - Kanar Al-Mafraji
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - William C. Lamanna
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - James R. Beitel
- Zacharon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 5626 Oberlin Drive, San Diego CA 92121
| | - Geert-Jan Boons
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Jeffrey D. Esko
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Brett E. Crawford
- Zacharon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 5626 Oberlin Drive, San Diego CA 92121
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71
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Reier PJ, Lane MA, Hall ED, Teng YD, Howland DR. Translational spinal cord injury research: preclinical guidelines and challenges. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2012; 109:411-33. [PMID: 23098728 PMCID: PMC4288927 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52137-8.00026-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Advances in the neurobiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) have prompted increasing attention to opportunities for moving experimental strategies towards clinical applications. Preclinical studies are the centerpiece of the translational process. A major challenge is to establish strategies for achieving optimal translational progression while minimizing potential repetition of previous disappointments associated with clinical trials. This chapter reviews and expands upon views pertaining to preclinical design reported in recently published opinion surveys. Subsequent discussion addresses other preclinical considerations more specifically related to current and potentially imminent cellular and pharmacological approaches to acute/subacute and chronic SCI. Lastly, a retrospective and prospective analysis examines how guidelines currently under discussion relate to select examples of past, current, and future clinical translations. Although achieving definition of the "perfect" preclinical scenario is difficult to envision, this review identifies therapeutic robustness and independent replication of promising experimental findings as absolutely critical prerequisites for clinical translation. Unfortunately, neither has been fully embraced thus far. Accordingly, this review challenges the notion "everything works in animals and nothing in humans", since more rigor must first be incorporated into the bench-to-bedside translational process by all concerned, whether in academia, clinical medicine, or corporate circles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Reier
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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72
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Chi A, Shirodkar SP, Escudero DO, Ekwenna OO, Yates TJ, Ayyathurai R, Garcia-Roig M, Gahan JC, Manoharan M, Bird VG, Lokeshwar VB. Molecular characterization of kidney cancer: association of hyaluronic acid family with histological subtypes and metastasis. Cancer 2011; 118:2394-402. [PMID: 21887686 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.26520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2011] [Revised: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 07/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular profiling of renal cell carcinomas (RCCs) may improve the distinction between oncocytoma and malignant RCC subtypes and aid in early detection of metastasis. The hyaluronic acid (HA) family includes HA synthases (HAS1, HAS2, HAS3), hyaluronidases (HYAL-1, HYAL-2, HYAL-3, HYAL-4, PH20, HYAL-P1), and HA receptors (CD44s, CD44v, RHAMM). HA family members promote tumor growth and metastasis. The authors evaluated the expression of HA family members in kidney specimens. METHODS By using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, mRNA levels of 12 HA family members were measured in tumor specimens obtained from 86 consecutive patients undergoing nephrectomy; 80 of them also provided normal specimens. Mean and median follow-up were 15.2 ± 8.8 and 13.8 months. RCC specimens included clear cell RCC: 65; papillary: 10; chromophobe: 5; oncocytoma: 6; metastasis positive: 17. RESULTS Median HAS1, CD44s, and RHAMM transcript levels were elevated 3- to 25-fold in clear cell RCC and papillary and chromophobe tumors when compared with normal tissues. HYAL-4, CD44s, and RHAMM levels were elevated 4- to 12-fold in clear cell RCC and papillary tumors when compared with oncocytomas; only HYAL-4 levels distinguished between chromophobe and oncocytoma (P = .009). CD44s and RHAMM levels were significantly higher in tumors <4 cm (510 ± 611 and 19.6 ± 20.8, respectively) when compared with oncocytoma (46.4 ± 20 and 3.8 ± 2.5; P ≤ .006). In univariate and multivariate analyses, CD44s (P < .0001), RHAMM (P < .0001), stage, tumor size, and/or renal vein involvement were significantly associated with metastasis. The combined CD44s + RHAMM marker had 82% sensitivity and 86% specificity to predict metastasis. CONCLUSIONS CD44s and RHAMM levels distinguish between oncocytoma and RCC subtypes regardless of tumor size and are potential predictors of RCC metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Chi
- Department of Urology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33101, USA
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73
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Hashiguchi T, Mizumoto S, Nishimura Y, Tamura JI, Yamada S, Sugahara K. Involvement of human natural killer-1 (HNK-1) sulfotransferase in the biosynthesis of the GlcUA(3-O-sulfate)-Gal-Gal-Xyl tetrasaccharide found in α-thrombomodulin from human urine. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:33003-11. [PMID: 21828042 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.279174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Thrombomodulin (TM) is an integral membrane glycoprotein, which occurs as both a chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycan (PG) form (β-TM) and a non-PG form without a CS chain (α-TM) and hence is a part-time PG. An α-TM preparation isolated from human urine contained the glycosaminoglycan linkage region tetrasaccharide GlcUAβ1-3Galβ1-3Galβ1-4xylose, and the nonreducing terminal GlcUA residue is 3-O-sulfated. Because the human natural killer-1 sulfotransferase (HNK-1ST) transfers a sulfate group from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to the C-3 position of the nonreducing terminal GlcUA residue in the HNK-1 antigen precursor trisaccharide, GlcUAβ1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc, the sulfotransferase activity toward the linkage region was investigated. In fact, the activity of HNK-1ST toward the linkage region was much higher than that toward the glucuronylneolactotetraosylceramide, the precursor of the HNK-1 epitope. HNK-1ST may be responsible for regulating the sorting of α- and β-TM. Furthermore, HNK-1ST also transferred a sulfate group from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to the C-3 position of the nonreducing terminal GlcUA residue of a chondroitin chain. Intriguingly, the HNK-1 antibody recognized CS chains and the linkage region if they contained GlcUA(3-O-sulfate), suggesting that HNK-1ST not only synthesizes the HNK-1 epitope but may also be involved in the generation of part-time PGs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taishi Hashiguchi
- Laboratory of Proteoglycan Signaling and Therapeutics, Frontier Research Center for Post-genomic Science and Technology, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, West-11, North-21, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0021, Japan
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74
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Kurdykowski S, Mine S, Bardey V, Danoux L, Jeanmaire C, Pauly G, Brabencova E, Wegrowski Y, Maquart FX. Ultraviolet-B irradiation induces differential regulations of hyaluronidase expression and activity in normal human keratinocytes. Photochem Photobiol 2011; 87:1105-12. [PMID: 21699545 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2011.00959.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Skin aging is a complex process determined by genetic factors (intrinsic aging) and environmental factors (extrinsic aging). One of the most influential environmental factor is UV-B irradiation. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is an abundant component of skin extracellular matrix where it plays many roles such as hydration and architectural support. Downregulation of HA during photoaging was reported previously. Changes in expression and function of its degrading enzymes, the hyaluronidases (Hyals) might be involved in this decrease. In the present study, normal human keratinocytes were submitted to increasing doses of UV-B. The mRNA expression of HYAL1, HYAL2 and HYAL3 and the hyaluronidase enzymatic activity were quantified using real-time PCR and a microtiter-based assay, respectively. After UV-B irradiation, HYAL1 mRNA expression was upregulated whereas HYAL2 and HYAL3 mRNAs were downregulated and hyaluronidase enzymatic activity was increased in both cell layer and culture medium. In parallel, immunohistochemical studies performed on UV-B irradiated reconstructed epidermis confirmed that Hyal-1, Hyal-2 and Hyal-3 protein expression were differently regulated by UV-B. Taken together, our results demonstrate that UV-B irradiation induces differential regulations of hyaluronidase expression and enzymatic activity in human keratinocytes. These differential modulations of hyaluronidase expression and activity by UV-B could contribute to cutaneous photoaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Kurdykowski
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, CNRS UMR 6237, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
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75
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Lamanna WC, Lawrence R, Sarrazin S, Esko JD. Secondary storage of dermatan sulfate in Sanfilippo disease. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:6955-62. [PMID: 21193389 PMCID: PMC3044951 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.192062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Revised: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetically inherited disorders that result from the defective activity of lysosomal enzymes involved in glycosaminoglycan catabolism, causing their intralysosomal accumulation. Sanfilippo disease describes a subset of mucopolysaccharidoses resulting from defects in heparan sulfate catabolism. Sanfilippo disorders cause severe neuropathology in affected children. The reason for such extensive central nervous system dysfunction is unresolved, but it may be associated with the secondary accumulation of metabolites such as gangliosides. In this article, we describe the accumulation of dermatan sulfate as a novel secondary metabolite in Sanfilippo. Based on chondroitinase ABC digestion, chondroitin/dermatan sulfate levels in fibroblasts from Sanfilippo patients were elevated 2-5-fold above wild-type dermal fibroblasts. Lysosomal turnover of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate in these cell lines was significantly impaired but could be normalized by reducing heparan sulfate storage using enzyme replacement therapy. Examination of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate catabolic enzymes showed that heparan sulfate and heparin can inhibit iduronate 2-sulfatase. Analysis of the chondroitin/dermatan sulfate fraction by chondroitinase ACII digestion showed dermatan sulfate storage, consistent with inhibition of iduronate 2-sulfatase. The discovery of a novel storage metabolite in Sanfilippo patients may have important implications for diagnosis and understanding disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C. Lamanna
- From the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687
| | - Roger Lawrence
- From the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687
| | - Stéphane Sarrazin
- From the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687
| | - Jeffrey D. Esko
- From the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687
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76
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Jiang D, Liang J, Noble PW. Hyaluronan as an immune regulator in human diseases. Physiol Rev 2011; 91:221-64. [PMID: 21248167 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00052.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 740] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulation and turnover of extracellular matrix components are the hallmarks of tissue injury. Fragmented hyaluronan stimulates the expression of inflammatory genes by a variety of immune cells at the injury site. Hyaluronan binds to a number of cell surface proteins on various cell types. Hyaluronan fragments signal through both Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and TLR2 as well as CD44 to stimulate inflammatory genes in inflammatory cells. Hyaluronan is also present on the cell surface of epithelial cells and provides protection against tissue damage from the environment by interacting with TLR2 and TLR4. Hyaluronan and hyaluronan-binding proteins regulate inflammation, tissue injury, and repair through regulating inflammatory cell recruitment, release of inflammatory cytokines, and cell migration. This review focuses on the role of hyaluronan as an immune regulator in human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianhua Jiang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA.
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Easy HPLC-based separation and quantitation of chondroitin sulphate and hyaluronan disaccharides after chondroitinase ABC treatment. Carbohydr Res 2011; 346:50-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2010.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Revised: 10/28/2010] [Accepted: 10/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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78
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Adamczyk P, Zenkert C, Balasubramanian PG, Yamada S, Murakoshi S, Sugahara K, Hwang JS, Gojobori T, Holstein TW, Ozbek S. A non-sulfated chondroitin stabilizes membrane tubulation in cnidarian organelles. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:25613-23. [PMID: 20538610 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.107904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Membrane tubulation is generally associated with rearrangements of the cytoskeleton and other cytoplasmic factors. Little is known about the contribution of extracellular matrix components to this process. Here, we demonstrate an essential role of proteoglycans in the tubulation of the cnidarian nematocyst vesicle. The morphogenesis of this extrusive organelle takes place inside a giant post-Golgi vesicle, which topologically represents extracellular space. This process includes the formation of a complex collagenous capsule structure that elongates into a long tubule, which invaginates after its completion. We show that a non-sulfated chondroitin appears as a scaffold in early morphogenesis of all nematocyst types in Hydra and Nematostella. It accompanies the tubulation of the vesicle membrane forming a provisional tubule structure, which after invagination matures by collagen incorporation. Inhibition of chondroitin synthesis by beta-xylosides arrests nematocyst morphogenesis at different stages of tubule outgrowth resulting in retention of tubule material and a depletion of mature capsules in the tentacles of hydra. Our data suggest a conserved role of proteoglycans in the stabilization of a membrane protrusion as an essential step in organelle morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Adamczyk
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Genomics, Institute of Zoology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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