Post-traumatic migraine: chronic migraine precipitated by minor head or neck trauma

Neuropsychology and clinical neuroscience of persistent post-concussive syndrome

On the mild end of the acquired brain injury spectrum, the terms concussion and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) have been used interchangeably, where persistent post-concussive syndrome (PPCS) has been a label given when symptoms persist for more than three months post-concussion. Whereas a brief history of concussion research is overviewed, the focus of this review is on the current status of PPCS as a clinical entity from the perspective of recent advances in the biomechanical modeling of concussion in human and animal studies, particularly directed at a better understanding of the neuropathology associated with concussion. These studies implicate common regions of injury, including the upper brainstem, base of the frontal lobe, hypothalamic-pituitary axis, medial temporal lobe, fornix, and corpus callosum. Limitations of current neuropsychological techniques for the clinical assessment of memory and executive function are explored and recommendations for improved research designs offered, that may enhance the study of long-term neuropsychological sequelae of concussion.

Characteristics and Treatment of Headache After Traumatic Brain Injury

Headache is one of the most common complaints in patients with traumatic brain injury. By definition, headache that develops within 1 wk after head trauma (or within 1 wk after regaining consciousness) is referred to as posttraumatic headache (PTH). Although most PTH resolves within 6-12 mos after injury, approximately 18-33% of PTH persists beyond 1 yr. We performed a systematic literature review on this topic and found that many patients with PTH had clinical presentations very similar to tension-type headache (37% of all PTH) and migraine (29% of all PTH). Although there is no universally accepted protocol for treating PTH, many clinicians treat PTH as if they were managing primary headache. As a result of the heterogeneity in the terminology and paucity in prospective, well-controlled studies in this field, there is a definite need for conducting double-blind, placebo-controlled treatment trials in patients with PTH.

[Comorbidity of migraine and somatic diseases]

INTRODUCTION

A 5-year prospective follow-up study was performed at the Institute of Mental Health in Belgrade, and it included adult patients diagnosed with migraine.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A protocol for prospective follow-up of comorbiditiy of migraine and somatic diseases was designed, whereas data were analyzed using standard statistical methods.

RESULTS

The study comprised 381 patients, mean age 35.8 (range 19-60) years, 60 (15.8%) males and 321 (84.2%) females. The mean duration of migraine history before the first visit to the doctor was 7.7 (0-36) years. There was no concomitant disease in 50.5% of examinees. The most common concomitant diseases in the study population were: spondylosis (15.9%), head injury (12.9%), gynecological disorders (11.6% of female subgroup), hypotension (8.8%), hypertension (8.5%), allergy and asthma (5.8%), various cardiovascular diseases (4%) and epilepsy (3%). The incidence of the majority of diseases is in accordance with known epidemiological data for general population (except for head injury and epilepsy). In the subgroup of patients with comorbidity, almost 70% of patients reported more than one migraine attack per month, compared to 35% of patients without concomitant diseases, and about 60% of them had a higher intensity of headache in comparison with 35% of those without comorbidity.

CONCLUSION

Present results indicate an increased severity of migraine attacks in patients with comorbidity. Therefore, it is necessary to assess how good management of comorbid diseases can alleviate the course and intensity of migraine headaches.

Posttraumatic migraine characteristics in athletes following sports-related concussion

OBJECT

The object of this study was to compare symptom status and neurocognitive functioning in athletes with no headache (non-HA group), athletes complaining of headache (HA group), and athletes with characteristics of posttraumatic migraine (PTM group).

METHODS

Neurocognitive tests were undertaken by 261 high-school and collegiate athletes with a mean age of 16.36 +/- 2.6 years. Athletes were separated into three groups: the PTM group (74 athletes with a mean age of 16.39 +/- 3.06 years), the HA group (124 athletes with a mean age of 16.44 +/- 2.51 years), and the non-HA group (63 patients with a mean age of 16.14 +/- 2.18 years). Neurocognitive summary scores (outcome measures) for verbal and visual memory, visual motor speed, reaction time, and total symptom scores were collected using ImPACT, a computer software program designed to assess sports-related concussion. Significant differences existed among the three groups for all outcome measures. The PTM group demonstrated significantly greater neurocognitive deficits when compared with the HA and non-HA groups. The PTM group also exhibited the greatest amount of departure from baseline scores.

CONCLUSIONS

The differences among these groups can be used as a basis to argue that PTM characteristics triggered by sports-related concussion are related to increased neurocognitive dysfunction following mild traumatic brain injury. Thus, athletes suffering a concussion accompanied by PTM should be examined in a setting that includes symptom status and neurocognitive testing to address their recovery more fully. Given the increased impairments observed in the PTM group, in this population clinicians should exercise increased caution in decisions about treatment and when the athlete should be allowed to return to play.

Chronic post-traumatic headache--a clinical analysis in relation to the International Headache Classification 2nd Edition

The clinical presentation of chronic post-traumatic headache in 53 patients from a highly specialized headache clinic was analysed and classified according to the diagnostic criteria of the primary headaches in The International Headache Classification 2nd Edition, and compared with the 1st Edition. All patients fulfilled the criteria for both editions indicating that the restrictions in the 2nd Edition have no major influence on the prevalence in specialized clinics. We found the phenomenology to be very heterogeneous, but the vast majority (77%) of patients presented with headache resembling chronic tension-type headache, either as the only manifestation or in combination with migraine symptoms. For the first time episodic tension-type headache is described as occurring after head trauma. The prevalence of coexisting analgesic overuse was 42% and the treatment outcome for these patients was just as favourable as in primary headaches, whereas the time-consuming multidisciplinary treatment demonstrated only very modest results.

Posttraumatic headache

Posttraumatic headache (PTH) is divided into acute and chronic groups whose management and prognosis are clearly different. Although IHS criteria stipulate that PTH should have an onset within 2 weeks of the trauma, it has been observed that a headache linked to the trauma can start later. PTH can be clinically divided into the following groups: migraine-like headache, tension-type-like headache, cluster-like headache, cervicogenic-like headache, and others. Based on these clinical distinctions, therapy can be administered accordingly. However, the distinction is relative and numerous clinical features may be common to all. There seems to be a weak inverse relationship between the severity of the head trauma and the occurrence of a PTH, especially chronic. A holistic approach is not only useful but it is necessary for a therapeutic success. Early and aggressive treatment and empathy are essential to the patient's improvement. Prompt recognition and treatment of laceration, peripheral nociceptive sources such as cervical joint displacement, vascular factors, may diminish chronicity. Neuromodulation of pain with prophylactic agents is recommended early. Although it is less necessary for the acute PTH, it will be crucial for the chronic form and should be initiated no later than 2 months cut-off time between acute and chronic PTH. Recognition and treatment of psychiatric factors such as depression and anxiety will lessen the risk of chronicity. Analgesic rebound-withdrawal headache commonly is seen in chronic PTH. This must be corrected rapidly because it can protract the headache and render other inappropriate therapeutic measures inefficient.

Long-term relief of posttraumatic headache by sphenopalatine ganglion pulsed radiofrequency lesioning: a case report11No commercial party having a direct financial interest in the results of the research supporting this article has or will confer a benefit upon the authors(s) or upon any organization with which the author(s) is/are associated

Posttraumatic headache is a common and disabling pain syndrome in patients who sustain a head injury. Unfortunately, conventional treatments may fail or cause intolerable side effects. Because chronic headache may be mediated by central and peripheral neural processes, these structures may be therapeutic targets. One target, the sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG), is implicated in several headache disorders and has been lesioned for headache relief. Because of the risks of neurolytic procedures, nonablative procedures that provide pain relief would be useful. We present a case wherein a man in his late twenties with posttraumatic headache obtained more than 17 months of relief with SPG pulsed-mode radiofrequency lesioning. SPG pulsed-mode radiofrequency is a nonablative, neural lesioning method that may be useful in the treatment of posttraumatic headache.

Chronic daily headache and the revised international headache society classification

Chronic daily headache (CDH) is surprisingly common. It is best defined as a primary headache disorder with head pain on most days. There are a number of possible secondary causes of persistent headache, including traumatic, vascular, neoplastic, and infectious processes, all of which must be ruled out when the patient with frequent headache is evaluated. However, most patients with CDH seem to have a primary neurophysiologic disorder. This category of primary CDH does not seem to be a homogeneous disorder, but rather one with important subtypes. Several authors have proposed subdivisions of primary CDH such as chronic migraine, evolved migraine, transformed migraine, chronic tension-type headache, new daily persistent headache, and hemicrania continua. The International Headache Society (IHS) Classification published in 1988 did not address CDH other than to define a category "chronic tension-type headache." The revised IHS Classification (ICHD II) attempts to characterize CDH more thoroughly with the addition of chronic migraine and new daily persistent headache diagnoses, but this complex issue continues to defy easy categorization. This article provides a review of thinking about the nature of primary CDH and how ICHD II attempts to organize this category for much needed research purposes.

Post-traumatic headaches

Post-traumatic headaches are one of the most common and controversial secondary headache types. After mild head injury, up to 50% of people develop a post concussion syndrome, which has been controversial for over 135 years. Headache is estimated as present in 30% to 90% of patients after mild head injury. Most headaches are of the tension type, although migraines can increase in frequency or occur acutely or chronically de novo. The treatments are the same as for the primary headaches. Approximately 20% of patients have persistent post-traumatic headaches for more than 1 year, which may not resolve despite the settlement of any pending litigation.

[Whiplash injury of the neck from concepts to facts]

OBJECTIVES

To focus on a topic of traumatology and rehabilitation becoming recently a much debated public health problem.

METHOD

A references search from Medline database with whiplash as keyword was carried out. Were selected articles with abstracts in french or english and focusing on accidentology, biomechanics, demonstrated lesions, epidemiology and treatments.

RESULTS

From 1664 references found, 232 were reviewed. The usual mechanism of crash is a rear-end collision inducing in the occupants of the bumped vehicle a sudden lower cervical spine extension with upper flexion followed by a global flexion. In nearly 50% of the cases, the stress occurring in the collision is comparable to that observed in bumper cars. The velocity changes are seldom up to 15 km/h. A headrest at the level of the center of gravity of the head restrict significantly the extension of the neck. Every structure of the cervical spine could be damaged and mainly the facet joints but the lesions were only demonstrated in severes traumatisms. The discrepancies in incidence among the different countries could be related to their medicolegal system. Although subjectives, the early symptoms are rather similar among patients suggesting true anatomical or functional disorders but the chronicity seems to be mainly related to social and psychological factors. The association of: no posterior midline cervical tenderness, no intoxication, normal alertness, no focal neurological deficit and no painful distracting injuries has a good predictive value of the lack of osteo-articular lesion on X-rays. Except the grade IV of the Quebec task Force (0, no symptom; 1, pain and stiffness; 2, neck complaint and physical signs; 3, neck complaint and neurological signs; 4, fracture or dislocation) the use of a collar should be avoided and the cervical spine should be mobilized.

CONCLUSION

In most whiplash injuries, the mildness should be early stated, mobilization encouraged, and procedures of compensation shortened.

The relationship of neck injury and post-traumatic headache

Although there may be several causes of post-traumatic headache, neck injury is perhaps the most common. This paper primarily reviews the relationship of neck injury, whiplash, and post-traumatic headache. Mechanisms may include structural damage from acceleration or extension of the neck, development of myofascial pain and trigger points, interaction of the trigeminal nociceptive system with the upper cervical (occipital) nerves, and psychologic and emotional factors. Although some healing will occur, the outcome may depend on a number of human factors (awareness of an impending collision) and the fact that repaired tissue is different from normal, uninjured tissue.

Clinical evaluation of patients with head trauma

Head trauma is a very common and sometimes life-threatening medical condition that involves sports medicine physicians, emergency room physicians, neurologists, neurosurgeons, orthopedists, anesthesiologists, rehabilitation physicians, psychiatrists, and radiologists; as well as allied health care workers such as physical, occupational, and speech therapists, clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists, and many others. Head trauma needs to be approached by a mutlidisciplinary team because it is complex. Specialized trauma centers incorporate all of these specialists and the best medical technology for optimal management of head trauma. The following chapters cover the use of different neuroimaging techniques, including CT scan and MRI, that greatly aid clinicians in evaluation and management of head trauma patients. These advances have truly revolutionized medicine and it has happened rapidly--pneumoencephalography was the neuroimaging study of choice less than half a century ago. The future of neuroimaging in head trauma will undoubtedly include advances we can not yet foresee but that will allow clinicians to continue to improve patient care.

International Headache Society headache diagnostic patterns in pain facility patients

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have indicated that many patients with chronic pain (PWCP) referred to pain facilities for the treatment of neck and/or low back pain complain of associated headaches. The purpose of this study was to characterize the nature of these headaches according to International Headache Society (IHS) headache diagnostic criteria.

DESIGN

In preparation for this study, a questionnaire that reflected IHS headache diagnostic criteria was developed. All consecutive patients admitted to our pain facility complaining of headache completed this questionnaire and received a physical and neurologic examination focused on key aspects of headache. A headache interview was also conducted, using the questionnaire as a question guide. All questionnaires were entered in a computerized database, and IHS diagnoses were arrived at for each patient. As many IHS diagnoses as possible were assigned to each PWCP as long as IHS criteria were fulfilled. In addition, a frequency distribution for headache precipitants and neck-associated symptoms was developed and evaluated by discriminant analysis to determine the diagnostic value of these factors in relation to each IHS diagnostic group.

SETTING

Pain facility (multidisciplinary pain center).

PATIENTS

Consecutive PWCP.

RESULTS

Of 1,466 PWCP, 154 (10.5%) were identified as suffering from severe headache interfering with function. Of these, 55.8% indicated that their headaches were related to an injury for which they were seeking treatment and 83.7% had neck pain. Migraine headache represented the most common diagnostic group (90.3%), with cervicogenic headache representing the second most common (33.8%). Of the total group, 44.2% had more than one headache diagnosis, that is, there was overlap. Cervicogenic headache patients had the greatest percentage of overlap (94.2%), with migraine patients being second (68.3%). The most frequent headache precipitant was mental stress, followed by neck position and activity/exercise. The migraine and cervicogenic headache groups had a statistically significant greater number of neck-associated symptoms when compared with the remaining patients. Of the total headache group, 74.6% complained that they had a tender point at the back of their neck. Cervicogenic, migraine, and tension PWCP had the greatest frequency of head or neck tender points. The discriminant analysis for neck-associated symptoms yielded the following symptoms as the most common predictors of headache across IHS diagnostic groups: clues to onset were severe headache beginning at the neck or tender point and numbness in arms and legs; headache brought on by neck position and arms overhead; and neck symptoms consisting of a tender point in the neck and feeling severe headache in the neck.

CONCLUSIONS

Headache can and should be considered a frequent comorbid condition in PWCP. Because of the overlap data, more precise diagnostic criteria may be required to separate cervicogenic headache from migraine headache. Neck-associated symptoms seem to be important even to those PWCP diagnosed with migraine headache.

The postconcussion syndrome after mild head trauma part II: is migraine underdiagnosed?

The evidence for post-traumatic migraine as the cause of the postconcussion syndrome in a proportion of patients is reviewed.

CONCLUSION

patients suffering recurrent post-traumatic headaches or other elements of the postconcussion syndrome should be treated for migraine.

Roller coaster migraine: an underreported injury?

A 28-year-old woman presented with severe headache, sleep problems, memory problems, and irritability 2 months after a violent roller coaster ride. She was diagnosed with posttraumatic migraine, and intravenous dihydroergotamine resolved her symptoms. Imaging studies, electroencephalogram, and visual and auditory evoked responses were normal. Imipramine, divalproex sodium, and propranolol were prescribed to prevent the headaches from recurring and dihydroergotamine nasal spray was prescribed for breakthrough headaches. We consider the many short but significant brain insults delivered during the roller coaster ride a critical factor in triggering this instance of posttraumatic migraine, which while unmanaged was a source of significant disability for the patient.

[Chronic post-traumatic headache after mild head injuries]

Current evidence indicates that chronic post-traumatic headache (cPTH) has organic causes. Nevertheless, these patients are considered as neurotics or malingering by health professionals, mainly if the headache originates from mild head injuries (MHI). Our aim was to identify the features of cPTH after MHI. We studied 27 consecutive patients fulfilling the criteria established for cPTH and MHI. Headache began on the same day of the trauma in 51.8% of patients. The clinical features allowed the following diagnosis: migraine (70.3%); tension type headache (51.8%); cervicogenic headache (11.1%). Concomitance of migraine and tension type headache was found in 29.6%. Thirty three percent of employees, 40% of housewives and 50% of students in our series referred prejudice in their productive activities. However, only three patients (11.1%) were claiming for compensation. The lack of potential gain and the uniformity of the clinical presentation are suggestive that the cPTH has an organic cause.

Medicolegal issues: headache

This article addresses headache-related topics in which medicolegal issues have occurred or in which they are likely to occur. Where possible, an actual case has been presented. Most sections of this article are divided into three parts: principle of care, case history, and discussion and recommendations. When appropriate, American Academy of Neurology guidelines have been noted.

Epidemiology and pathogenesis of posttraumatic headache

This article presents an overview of the epidemiology and pathophysiology of posttraumatic headache. It reviews definitions of mild head injury (MHI), mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), and concussion, and discusses the confusion that often occurs with these terms. Headache types and their pathophysiology are examined in detail. Just as the exact pathophysiology is unknown for migraine and other types of headache, the exact pathophysiology of headache after trauma is also still unknown in many cases. Possible connections between head or neck injuries and headache are reviewed, as well as hypothesized neurochemical changes that may occur in both migraine and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Psychological and legal factors are also considered.

Emergency department evaluation of headache

Headache is an extremely common complaint in the Emergency Department, accounting for up to 16% of all visits. Although there are more than 300 medical conditions which can produce headache, the vast majority of headache disorders are benign. This article outlines an orderly approach for evaluating patients who present with headaches; in addition, the authors discuss the emergency treatment of the more common types of headache.

Headache and the cervical spine: a critical review

Headache related to the cervical spine is often misdiagnosed and treated inadequately because of confusing and varying terminology. Primary headaches such as tension-type headache and migraine are incorrectly categorized as "cervicogenic" merely because of their occipital localization. Cervicogenic headache as described by Sjaastad presents as a unilateral headache of fluctuating intensity increased by movement of the head and typically radiates from occipital to frontal regions. Definition, pathophysiology; differential diagnoses and therapy of cervicogenic headache are demonstrated. Ipsilateral blockades of the C2 root and/or greater occipital nerve allow a differentiation between cervicogenic headache and primary headache syndromes such as migraine or tension-type headache. Neither pharmacological nor surgical or chiropractic procedures lead to a significant improvement or remission of cervicogenic headache. Pains of various anatomical regions possibly join into a common anatomical pathway, then present as cervicogenic headache, which should therefore be understood as a homogeneous but also unspecific pattern of reaction.

Medical Management of Noncognitive Sequelae of Minor Traumatic Brain Injury

Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) encompasses the postconcussion syndrome characterized by symptoms that include a variety of physical symptoms as well as cognitive and behavioral impairments. The focus of this discussion is on the medical management of posttraumatic headaches, posttraumatic seizures, dizziness, auditory impairments, anosmia, tremor, paraspinal pain, and visual symptoms. Adjustment disorders with disturbances of affect and emotion lability also may accompany mild TBI. All of these conditions may be approached with medications or a variety of therapy techniques or both. The approach to concussion in sports-related injuries is also reviewed.

Temporomandibular disorders, headaches, and neck pain after motor vehicle accidents: a pilot investigation of persistence and litigation effects

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

There is a lack of long-term follow-up studies that involve post-motor vehicle accident temporomandibular disorders and compensation.

PURPOSE OF STUDY

The purposes of this retrospective pilot study were (1) to assess patients who had previously been treated for temporomandibular disorders after motor vehicle accidents to determine the nature of their symptoms in terms of jaw, head, and neck pain and jaw dysfunction and (2) to determine whether there was a difference in the pain and dysfunction between those who had settled and those who had not settled their insurance claims.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Thirty previously treated patients with temporomandibular disorders after motor vehicle accidents were questioned by telephone regarding litigation status and current jaw, head, and neck pain and jaw dysfunction symptoms. They did not differ substantially from a smaller group who were not able to be interviewed. Descriptive statistics were calculated and statistical tests were performed. A total of 22 patients had their claims settled.

RESULTS

Approximately three fourths had persistent complaints of jaw pain, jaw dysfunction, and headache, and more than 80% reported persistent neck pain. No apparent differences were found between those who had and had not settled their insurance claims.

CONCLUSION

Jaw, head and neck pain, and jaw dysfunction continued to be problems for the majority of this patient population, regardless of litigation status in this retrospective study.

The nosologic status of the whiplash syndrome: a critical review based on a methodological approach

STUDY DESIGN

Empirical studies concerning the whiplash syndrome are reviewed from the point of view of epidemiologic methodology.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the nosologic status of the whiplash syndrome.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Although a large number of studies concerning the syndrome exist, there is still controversy concerning the existence of the syndrome.

METHODS

The manner in which each study contributes to the validity of the syndrome is determined on the basis of the methodologic design (descriptive, case-control, cohort, and intervention/experimental) of the study.

RESULTS

Whereas the face validity of the syndrome is excellent, the descriptive, construct, and predictive validity are rather poor. In particular, convincing empirical evidence for a causal link (construct validity) between the trauma mechanism and chronic symptoms is sparse.

CONCLUSIONS

Carefully conducted studies designed to assess the degree to which head and nec trauma contribute to the development of chronic pain, particularly head and neck pain, are urgently needed.

Chronic post-traumatic headaches classified and compared with natural headaches

This study sought to determine whether chronic post-traumatic headaches are different from or identical to the naturally occurring headaches. The chronic post-traumatic headaches of 48 patients were classified, as if they were natural headaches, by the diagnostic criteria of the International Headache Society. Thirty-six patients' headaches (75%) were chronic tension-type headache, 10 (21%) were migraine without aura, and 2 (4%) were unclassifiable. The characteristics and accompaniments of the headaches within each diagnostic group were then compared to those in a control group with natural headaches of the same type. No notable differences between the post-traumatic and control groups were found. Hence, chronic post-traumatic headaches have no special features, but are symptomatically identical to either chronic tension-type headache or migraine without aura (in this series of patients). This identity suggests that post-traumatic headaches are generated by the same processes causing the natural headaches, not by intracranial derangement from head blows or jolts.

Diagnostic testing for the evaluation of headaches

Headaches are one of the most common symptoms that neurologists evaluate. Although most are caused by primary disorders, the list differential diagnoses is one of the longest in all of medicine, with over 300 different types and causes. The cause or type of most headaches can be determined by a careful history supplemented by a general and neurologic examination. Reasons for obtaining neuroimaging include medical indications as well as anxiety of patients and families and medico-legal concerns. In the era of managed care, concerns over deselection and negative capitation may dissuade the physician from ordering even a medically indicated scan. The yield of neuroimaging in the evaluation of patients with headache and a normal neurologic examination is quite low. Combining the results of multiple studies performed since 1977 for a total of 3026 scans reveals the overall percentages of various pathologies as: brain tumors, 0.8%; arteriovenous malformations, 0.2%; hydrocephalus, 0.3%; aneurysm, 0.1%; subdural hematoma, 0.2%; and strokes, including chronic ischemic processes, 1.2%. EEG is not useful in the routine evaluation of patients with headache. Similarly, the yield of neuroimaging in the evaluation of migraine is quite low. Combining the results of multiple studies performed since 1976 for a total of 1440 scans of patients with various types of migraine, the overall percentages of various pathologies are: brain tumor, 0.3%; arteriovenous malformation, 0.07%; and saccular aneurysm, 0.07%. WMA have been reported on MRI studies of patients with all types of migraine, with a range from 12% to 46%. The cause of WMA in migraine is not certain. Cerebral atrophy has been variable reported as more frequent and no more frequent in migraineurs compared with controls. The "first or worst" headache has a long list of possible causes and always includes the possibility of acute subarachnoid hemorrhage. Headaches--especially the sentinel type caused by SAH--often are misdiagnosed. The probability of detecting an aneurysmal hemorrhage of CT scans performed at various intervals after the ictus is: day 0.95%; day 3, 74%; 1 week, 50%; 2 weeks, 30%; and 3 weeks, almost nil. The location of a ruptured saccular aneurysm often is suggested by the predominant site of the SAH. The probability of detecting xanthochromia with spectrophotometry in the CSF at various times after a subarachnoid hemorrhage is: 12 hours, 100%; 1 week, 100%; 2 weeks, 100%; 3 weeks, more than 70%; and 4 weeks, more than 40%. The management of thunderclap headaches with normal CT scan and CSF examinations is controversial. Most patients have a benign course but an unruptured saccular aneurysm occasionally may be responsible for the headache. MR angiography may be a reasonable test to obtain instead of a cerebral arteriogram in many of these cases. About 30% to 90% of patients have headaches of various types and causes after mild head injury. Although most headaches are relatively benign, perhaps 1% to 3% of these patients have life-threatening pathology, including subdural and epidural hematomas, that are detected on CT and MRI scans. Headaches caused by subdural hematomas can be nonspecific. When new-onset headaches begin in patients over the age of 50 years, the physician always should consider whether it may be a secondary headache disorder requiring specific diagnostic testing and treatment. Up to 15% of patients 65 years and over who present to neurologists with new-onset headaches may have serious pathology such as stroke, TA, neoplasm, and subdural hematoma. Headaches are the most common symptom of TA, reported by 60% to 90%. The only over the temple. The diagnosis of TA is based on a high index of clinical suspicion that usually but not always is confirmed by laboratory testing. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate can be normal in 10% to 36% of patients with TA. A superficial temporal artery biopsy can give a false-negative result in 5% to 44% of patients.

Diagnosis and treatment of persistent pain after trauma to the head and neck

PURPOSE

A retrospective and prospective study on 22 cases of persistent pain after trauma to the head and neck is presented. According to the predominant symptoms and signs, pain patterns could be divided into musculoskeletal, vascular, and neuropathic, facilitating treatment decisions. Most cases were musculoskeletal in origin, with many demonstrating a combination of two or three pain states.

RESULTS

The variety of pain complaints and their underlying pathophysiology are discussed and treatments for specific pain states are examined.

CONCLUSION

Amitriptyline was the most useful drug in that it provided pain relief in musculoskeletal, vascular, and some neuropathic pain conditions. Multidrug therapy may be indicated in some recalcitrant cases, and drug alternatives are discussed.

Cervical musculoskeletal dysfunction in post-concussional headache

Persistent headache is a common symptom following a minor head injury or concussion, possibly related to simultaneous injury of structures of the cervical spine. This study measured aspects of cervical musculoskeletal function in a group of patients (12) with post-concussional headache (PCH) and in a normal control group. The PCH group was distinguished from the control group by the presence of painful upper cervical segmental joint dysfunction, less endurance in the neck flexor muscles and a higher incidence of moderately tight neck musculature. Active range of cervical motion and postural attitude were not significantly different between groups. As upper cervical joint dysfunction is a feature of cervicogenic causes of headache, the results of this study support the inclusion of a precise physical examination of the cervical region in differential diagnosis of patients suffering persistent headache following concussion.

Evidence for construct validity of the TMJ scale in a sample of chronic post-traumatic headache patients

The construct validity of the TMJ Scale was examined in a sample of chronic post-traumatic headache patients. Clinical indicators of temporomandibular (TM) dysfunction and measures of psychosocial distress were compared with relevant scales of the TMJ Scale. The clinical indicators were first subjected to principal components analysis. The resulting factor scores correlated significantly with selected physical domain scales of the TMJ Scale. The factor scores also significantly predicted the TMJ Global Scale in a regression analysis. Selected psychosocial domain scales of the TMJ Scale correlated strongly with measures of depression and anger and a clinical diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder. The results support the validity of the TMJ Scale and demonstrates its utility with post-traumatic headache patients.