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Vikram A, Lipus D, Bibby K. Produced water exposure alters bacterial response to biocides. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:13001-13009. [PMID: 25279933 DOI: 10.1021/es5036915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Microbial activity during the holding and reuse of wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations, termed produced water, may lead to issues with corrosion, sulfide release, and fouling. Biocides are applied to control biological activity, often with limited efficacy, which is typically attributed to chemical interactions with the produced water. However, it is unknown whether there is a biologically driven mechanism to biocide tolerance in produced water. Here, we demonstrate that produced water exposure results in an enhanced tolerance against the typically used biocide glutaraldehyde and increased susceptibility to the oxidative biocide hypochlorite in a native and a model bacteria and that this altered resistance is due to the salinity of the produced water. In addition, we elucidate the genetic response of the model organism Pseudomonas fluorescens to produced water exposure to provide a mechanistic interpretation of the altered biocide resistance. The RNA-seq data demonstrated the induction of genes involved in osmotic stress, energy production and conversion, membrane integrity, and protein transport following produced water exposure, which facilitates bacterial survival and alters biocide tolerance. Efforts to fundamentally understand biocide resistance mechanisms, which enable the optimization of biocide application, hold significant implications for greening of the fracturing process through encouraging produced water recycling. Specifically, these results suggest the necessity of optimizing biocide application at the level of individual shale plays, rather than historical experience, based upon produced water characteristics and salinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Vikram
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and §Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, United States
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Mohan AM, Bibby KJ, Lipus D, Hammack RW, Gregory KB. The functional potential of microbial communities in hydraulic fracturing source water and produced water from natural gas extraction characterized by metagenomic sequencing. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107682. [PMID: 25338024 PMCID: PMC4206270 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial activity in produced water from hydraulic fracturing operations can lead to undesired environmental impacts and increase gas production costs. However, the metabolic profile of these microbial communities is not well understood. Here, for the first time, we present results from a shotgun metagenome of microbial communities in both hydraulic fracturing source water and wastewater produced by hydraulic fracturing. Taxonomic analyses showed an increase in anaerobic/facultative anaerobic classes related to Clostridia, Gammaproteobacteria, Bacteroidia and Epsilonproteobacteria in produced water as compared to predominantly aerobic Alphaproteobacteria in the fracturing source water. The metabolic profile revealed a relative increase in genes responsible for carbohydrate metabolism, respiration, sporulation and dormancy, iron acquisition and metabolism, stress response and sulfur metabolism in the produced water samples. These results suggest that microbial communities in produced water have an increased genetic ability to handle stress, which has significant implications for produced water management, such as disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Murali Mohan
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kyle J. Bibby
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Daniel Lipus
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Richard W. Hammack
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kelvin B. Gregory
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Cluff MA, Hartsock A, MacRae JD, Carter K, Mouser PJ. Temporal changes in microbial ecology and geochemistry in produced water from hydraulically fractured Marcellus shale gas wells. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:6508-17. [PMID: 24803059 DOI: 10.1021/es501173p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms play several important roles in unconventional gas recovery, from biodegradation of hydrocarbons to souring of wells and corrosion of equipment. During and after the hydraulic fracturing process, microorganisms are subjected to harsh physicochemical conditions within the kilometer-deep hydrocarbon-bearing shale, including high pressures, elevated temperatures, exposure to chemical additives and biocides, and brine-level salinities. A portion of the injected fluid returns to the surface and may be reused in other fracturing operations, a process that can enrich for certain taxa. This study tracked microbial community dynamics using pyrotag sequencing of 16S rRNA genes in water samples from three hydraulically fractured Marcellus shale wells in Pennsylvania, USA over a 328-day period. There was a reduction in microbial richness and diversity after fracturing, with the lowest diversity at 49 days. Thirty-one taxa dominated injected, flowback, and produced water communities, which took on distinct signatures as injected carbon and electron acceptors were attenuated within the shale. The majority (>90%) of the community in flowback and produced fluids was related to halotolerant bacteria associated with fermentation, hydrocarbon oxidation, and sulfur-cycling metabolisms, including heterotrophic genera Halolactibacillus, Vibrio, Marinobacter, Halanaerobium, and Halomonas, and autotrophs belonging to Arcobacter. Sequences related to halotolerant methanogenic genera Methanohalophilus and Methanolobus were detected at low abundance (<2%) in produced waters several months after hydraulic fracturing. Five taxa were strong indicators of later produced fluids. These results provide insight into the temporal trajectory of subsurface microbial communities after "fracking" and have important implications for the enrichment of microbes potentially detrimental to well infrastructure and natural gas fouling during this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam A Cluff
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A. A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:8334-48. [PMID: 24606408 DOI: 10.1021/es405118y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 500] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The rapid rise of shale gas development through horizontal drilling and high volume hydraulic fracturing has expanded the extraction of hydrocarbon resources in the U.S. The rise of shale gas development has triggered an intense public debate regarding the potential environmental and human health effects from hydraulic fracturing. This paper provides a critical review of the potential risks that shale gas operations pose to water resources, with an emphasis on case studies mostly from the U.S. Four potential risks for water resources are identified: (1) the contamination of shallow aquifers with fugitive hydrocarbon gases (i.e., stray gas contamination), which can also potentially lead to the salinization of shallow groundwater through leaking natural gas wells and subsurface flow; (2) the contamination of surface water and shallow groundwater from spills, leaks, and/or the disposal of inadequately treated shale gas wastewater; (3) the accumulation of toxic and radioactive elements in soil or stream sediments near disposal or spill sites; and (4) the overextraction of water resources for high-volume hydraulic fracturing that could induce water shortages or conflicts with other water users, particularly in water-scarce areas. Analysis of published data (through January 2014) reveals evidence for stray gas contamination, surface water impacts in areas of intensive shale gas development, and the accumulation of radium isotopes in some disposal and spill sites. The direct contamination of shallow groundwater from hydraulic fracturing fluids and deep formation waters by hydraulic fracturing itself, however, remains controversial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avner Vengosh
- Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University , Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
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Wuchter C, Banning E, Mincer TJ, Drenzek NJ, Coolen MJL. Microbial diversity and methanogenic activity of Antrim Shale formation waters from recently fractured wells. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:367. [PMID: 24367357 PMCID: PMC3853793 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Antrim Shale in the Michigan Basin is one of the most productive shale gas formations in the U.S., but optimal resource recovery strategies must rely on a thorough understanding of the complex biogeochemical, microbial, and physical interdependencies in this and similar systems. We used Illumina MiSeq 16S rDNA sequencing to analyze the diversity and relative abundance of prokaryotic communities present in Antrim shale formation water of three closely spaced recently fractured gas-producing wells. In addition, the well waters were incubated with a suite of fermentative and methanogenic substrates in an effort to stimulate microbial methane generation. The three wells exhibited substantial differences in their community structure that may arise from their different drilling and fracturing histories. Bacterial sequences greatly outnumbered those of archaea and shared highest similarity to previously described cultures of mesophiles and moderate halophiles within the Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and δ- and ε-Proteobacteria. The majority of archaeal sequences shared highest sequence similarity to uncultured euryarchaeotal environmental clones. Some sequences closely related to cultured methylotrophic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens were also present in the initial well water. Incubation with methanol and trimethylamine stimulated methylotrophic methanogens and resulted in the largest increase in methane production in the formation waters, while fermentation triggered by the addition of yeast extract and formate indirectly stimulated hydrogenotrophic methanogens. The addition of sterile powdered shale as a complex natural substrate stimulated the rate of methane production without affecting total methane yields. Depletion of methane indicative of anaerobic methane oxidation (AMO) was observed over the course of incubation with some substrates. This process could constitute a substantial loss of methane in the shale formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Wuchter
- Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Erin Banning
- Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Tracy J Mincer
- Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Nicholas J Drenzek
- Reservoir Geosciences Department, Schlumberger Doll Research Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marco J L Coolen
- Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, MA, USA
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Murali Mohan A, Hartsock A, Bibby KJ, Hammack RW, Vidic RD, Gregory KB. Microbial community changes in hydraulic fracturing fluids and produced water from shale gas extraction. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:13141-13150. [PMID: 24088205 DOI: 10.1021/es402928b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Microbial communities associated with produced water from hydraulic fracturing are not well understood, and their deleterious activity can lead to significant increases in production costs and adverse environmental impacts. In this study, we compared the microbial ecology in prefracturing fluids (fracturing source water and fracturing fluid) and produced water at multiple time points from a natural gas well in southwestern Pennsylvania using 16S rRNA gene-based clone libraries, pyrosequencing, and quantitative PCR. The majority of the bacterial community in prefracturing fluids constituted aerobic species affiliated with the class Alphaproteobacteria. However, their relative abundance decreased in produced water with an increase in halotolerant, anaerobic/facultative anaerobic species affiliated with the classes Clostridia, Bacilli, Gammaproteobacteria, Epsilonproteobacteria, Bacteroidia, and Fusobacteria. Produced water collected at the last time point (day 187) consisted almost entirely of sequences similar to Clostridia and showed a decrease in bacterial abundance by 3 orders of magnitude compared to the prefracturing fluids and produced water samplesfrom earlier time points. Geochemical analysis showed that produced water contained higher concentrations of salts and total radioactivity compared to prefracturing fluids. This study provides evidence of long-term subsurface selection of the microbial community introduced through hydraulic fracturing, which may include significant implications for disinfection as well as reuse of produced water in future fracturing operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Murali Mohan
- National Energy Technology Laboratory , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
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Murali Mohan A, Hartsock A, Hammack RW, Vidic RD, Gregory KB. Microbial communities in flowback water impoundments from hydraulic fracturing for recovery of shale gas. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2013; 86:567-80. [DOI: 10.1111/1574-6941.12183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Murali Mohan
- National Energy Technology Laboratory; Pittsburgh PA USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; Carnegie Mellon University; Pittsburgh PA USA
| | | | | | - Radisav D. Vidic
- National Energy Technology Laboratory; Pittsburgh PA USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Kelvin B. Gregory
- National Energy Technology Laboratory; Pittsburgh PA USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; Carnegie Mellon University; Pittsburgh PA USA
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Davis JP, Struchtemeyer CG, Elshahed MS. Bacterial communities associated with production facilities of two newly drilled thermogenic natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale (Texas, USA). MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2012; 64:942-954. [PMID: 22622766 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-012-0073-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We monitored the bacterial communities in the gas-water separator and water storage tank of two newly drilled natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale in north central Texas, using a 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing approach over a period of 6 months. Overall, the communities were composed mainly of moderately halophilic and halotolerant members of the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria (classes Βeta-, Gamma-, and Epsilonproteobacteria) in both wells at all sampling times and locations. Many of the observed lineages were encountered in prior investigations of microbial communities from various fossil fluid formations and production facilities. In all of the samples, multiple H(2)S-producing lineages were encountered; belonging to the sulfate- and sulfur-reducing class Deltaproteobacteria, order Clostridiales, and phylum Synergistetes, as well as the thiosulfate-reducing order Halanaerobiales. The bacterial communities from the separator and tank samples bore little resemblance to the bacterial communities in the drilling mud and hydraulic-fracture waters that were used to drill these wells, suggesting the in situ development of the unique bacterial communities in such well components was in response to the prevalent geochemical conditions present. Conversely, comparison of the bacterial communities on temporal and spatial scales suggested the establishment of a core microbial community in each sampled location. The results provide the first overview of bacterial dynamics and colonization patterns in newly drilled, thermogenic natural gas wells and highlights patterns of spatial and temporal variability observed in bacterial communities in natural gas production facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Davis
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA
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