Region-specific expression of two mouse homeo box genes

Expression of homeo box genes during mouse development: a review

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Differential utilization of the same reading frame in a Xenopus homeobox gene encodes two related proteins sharing the same DNA-binding specificity

Xenopus XlHbox 1 produces two transcripts during early development. One encodes a long open reading frame (ORF) and the other a short ORF sharing the same homeodomain, but differing by an 82 amino acid domain at the amino terminus. The long protein amino terminus is conserved with many other homeodomain proteins, and its absence from the short protein could have functional consequences. Some viral genes also utilize a single ORF to encode transcription factors of antagonistic functions. The overall organization of the homologous genes in frog and man is similar, supporting the notion that both transcripts are of functional significance. Studies on XlHbox 1 function show that the region common to the long and short proteins has a sequence-specific DNA-binding activity, and that microinjection of specific antibodies into embryos results in the loss of structures derived from cells normally expressing XlHbox 1.

Microinjection of synthetic Xhox-1A homeobox mRNA disrupts somite formation in developing Xenopus embryos

The structural similarity between Drosophila and vertebrate homeobox genes begs the question of whether the vertebrate gene products affect cell fate and pattern formation. To study the function of the Xenopus homeobox protein, Xhox-1A, we microinjected fertilized Xenopus eggs with an excess of synthetic Xhox-RNA and assayed for effects on development. The predominant phenotype is a disturbance in somite formation. When embryos are injected with Xhox-1A mRNA, but not with control mRNAs, morphogenesis of somites occurs chaotically and individual segments are lost. Histological staining, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemistry indicate that the disorganized somitic tissue has differentiated into muscle cells. Overall, these results suggest that correct regulation of the Xhox-1A gene may be important for the normal development of the segmented somite pattern in early embryos. Moreover, the inferred role of Xhox-1A in somite formation indicates that there may be molecular parallels between mechanisms of segmentation in flies and vertebrates.

Pax 1, a member of a paired box homologous murine gene family, is expressed in segmented structures during development

The mouse genome contains at least three copies of sequences homologous to the "paired box", a conserved domain in several Drosophila segmentation genes of the pair-rule and segment polarity classes. Overlapping phages were isolated from two different genomic libraries using the Drosophila gooseberry distal paired box as a probe. The hybridizing sequences are highly homologous to the conserved Drosophila paired box sequences. A single 3.1 kb Pax 1 (paired box gene) transcript was detected during embryonic development, whereas no transcripts were detected in adult tissues. Detailed in situ hybridization analyses with frozen embryonic sections demonstrated Pax 1 transcripts in the perichordal zone of the developing vertebral column. The expression pattern suggests a role for this gene in the formation of segmented structures of the mouse embryo.

A zebrafish engrailed-like homeobox sequence expressed during embryogenesis

The zebrafish genome was found to contain two sequences which cross-hybridize strongly with the engrailed gene of Drosophila. Several independent clones containing one of these cross-hybridizing sequences were isolated from a zebrafish genomic library. Characterization of this region (ZF-EN) by DNA sequencing showed that it shares about 70% sequence identity with the engrailed homeobox. More extensive homeobox homology (greater than 90%) was found relative to the murine En genes. The closest relationship exists between ZF-EN and En-2 where the C-terminal domains (104 amino acids) encoded by these genes are almost identical. We also observed that ZF-EN and En-2 are very similar with respect to their transcript sizes and temporal expression patterns.

A zebrafish homologue of the murine Hox-2.1 gene

Homeobox-containing sequences were isolated from a genomic library of zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio). A lambda clone containing two homeobox cross-hybridizing regions was characterized. DNA sequencing of one of these regions (ZF-21) revealed that it contains a homeobox closely related to the Antennapedia class of Drosophila homeobox sequences. Moreover, the deduced amino acid sequence of the C-terminal end (81 residues including the homeobox) is identical to the corresponding part of the murine Hox-2.1 protein. Similar to Hox-2.1, a ZF-21 derived transcript of 2.3 kb is present in embryos at the somite forming stages.

Activation of four homeobox gene clusters in human embryonal carcinoma cells induced to differentiate by retinoic acid

We have studied the expression of nine homeobox genes from Hox 1, Hox 2, Hox 3 and Hox 5 clusters in human embryonal carcinoma (EC) cell lines analyzed as both stem cells and after exposure to the differentiation-inducing agents retinoic acid (RA), hexamethylenebisacetamide (HMBA) and bromodeoxyuridine (BUdR). None of the homeobox genes was expressed in stem cells, whereas all were activated, although with different kinetics, in cultures of the pluripotent EC cell line NTERA-2, clone D1 (NT2/D1), following differentiation induced by RA. At least some homeobox genes were stably expressed in differentiated cells several weeks after removal of RA from the culture medium. However, the length of initial exposure to RA is a critical factor in achieving stable gene expression, and differs among the different sets of genes and, at least in one case, among different transcripts from the same gene. No homeobox gene expression was detected in NT2/D1 cells induced to differentiate with HMBA or BUdR. Also, no expression was detectable in xenograft tumors generated by NT2/D1 cells in nude mice, even though tumors of this type contain mostly differentiated cells. Other human EC lines tested, i.e., 833KE, 2102Ep or 1156QE, did not differentiate in response to RA and did not express homeobox genes. No expression was detectable in xenograft tumors of 833KE and 2102Ep, containing essentially EC cells. These data indicate that homeobox-gene activation specifically accompanies RA-induced differentiation of NT2/D1 cells, thereby providing an excellent model for studying the molecular basis of homeobox-gene regulation and the possible role of the homeobox in cell differentiation.

Molecular cloning and characterization of homeo-box-containing genes from Atlantic salmon

As the most primitive group among vertebrates, fish might serve as a model system when studying the genetic regulation of embryogenesis in higher animals. To identify genes important for early development, we have constructed a genomic library from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and screened it with homeobox-containing probes from Drosophila melanogaster. Five different salmon homeoboxes were isolated. Two of these were located in the same clone, separated by only 7.5 kb. This demonstrates the presence of clustered homeobox genes in fish. The two clustered homeoboxes were sequenced and shown to be closely related to the ANT-C/BX-C class of Drosophila, being about 80% homologous to the Ultrabithorax gene (Ubx) homeobox. One of the clustered genes appears to be the salmon equivalent of the mouse Hox-2.1 gene, indicating that some of the vertebrate homeobox-containing genes are conserved in evolution. A more diverged homeobox that shares only 60% homology with Ubx, was also sequenced. In analogy to Drosophila, therefore, the salmon genome contains more than one class of homeoboxes. In addition, Northern-blot experiments demonstrated that two of the homeobox genes are expressed in salmon embryos, suggesting their importance for proper development.

Murine Hox-1.7 homeo-box gene: cloning, chromosomal location, and expression

A new murine homeo-box, called Hox-1.7, has been identified in a rare cDNA from F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells. The Hox-1.7 homeo-box is 68 and 72% homologous to the Drosophila antennapedia (Antp) and iab-7 homeo-boxes, respectively. A major 2.5-kilobase transcript and several minor transcripts were detected by Northern blot (RNA blot) analysis in adult tissues as well as in midgestational embryos. The posterior spinal cord was found to be a major site of Hox-1.7 expression in 12.5-day-old embryos. Somatic cell hybrids were used to map the Hox-1.7 gene to mouse chromosome 6. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms associated with either the Hox-1.7 gene or the previously known Hox-1 complex were identified. Their distribution patterns in recombinant inbred mouse strains were used to determine the linkage between the two loci as well as to other loci on chromosome 6. This maps Hox-1 and Hox-1.7 close to two mouse loci that affect morphogenesis, postaxial hemimelia (px) and hypodactyly (Hd).

Pattern of transcription of the homeo gene Hox-3.1 in the mouse embryo

A cDNA from the Hox-3.1 locus, isolated from a 10.5-day postcoitum (p.c.) mouse embryo cDNA library, and the putative encoded protein are described. The spatial distribution of Hox-3.1 gene transcripts from late gastrulation to embryonic day 14.5 p.c. was monitored by in situ hybridization, using a cDNA probe. When first detectable in 8.5-day p.c. embryos, the transcripts are distributed in all the tissues of the posterior end. At later stages, the distribution becomes progressively spatially restricted and tissue specific. By 12.5 days p.c., transcription is localized most intensely in the neural tube region lying above the heart. The early transcription pattern thus appears to be compatible with a regionalizing role for the Hox-3.1 gene.

Expression of the murine homeo box gene Hox 1.5 during embryogenesis

The spatial pattern of expression of the murine homeo box-containing gene Hox 1.5 was studied during embryogenesis. In situ hybridization of single-stranded RNA probes to mouse embryo sections revealed a specific spatial distribution of the Hox 1.5 transcripts in mouse embryos 8.5 to 12.5 days postcoitum (p.c.). Analysis of mouse embryos 8.5 days p.c. showed that the gene is expressed in a spatially restricted manner. Expression appears to be limited to the central nervous system with an anterior boundary in the hindbrain and extending posteriorly through caudal regions of the spinal cord. The same spatial pattern of expression was observed in embryos 9.5 to 12.5 days p.c. These results show that the murine Hox 1.5 gene is expressed in a spatially restricted manner during embryonic development similar to the patterns observed in Drosophila homeotic genes.

Post-transcriptional regulation of a murine homeobox gene transcript in F9 embryonal carcinoma cells

A 2.4 kb RNA encoded by the murine Hox 1.1 (m6) homeobox gene is induced when F9 stem cells are differentiated with retinoic acid and dibutyryl cyclic AMP. The regulation of Hox 1.1 expression was probed by using cycloheximide, an inhibitor of protein synthesis. Production of the Hox 1.1 RNA in differentiating F9 cells was not blocked by treatment with cycloheximide, indicating that new protein synthesis is not required for its induction. On the contrary, this transcript was detected in F9 stem cells treated with cycloheximide, anisomycin, or emetine alone. Nuclear transcription assays indicated that the Hox 1.1 gene was transcribed in F9 stem cells and that the rate of transcription did not change early in the differentiation of F9 cells. These observations indicate that the induction of Hox 1.1 transcripts in F9 stem cells during differentiation is not regulated at the level of transcription initiation but results from stabilization of the transcript.

Region-specific expression of mouse homeobox genes in the embryonic mesoderm and central nervous system

The homeobox is a 180-base-pair sequence characteristically found in homeotic and segmentation genes in Drosophila. Several copies of homeoboxes are also found in the mammalian genome, but it is not known whether these are components of morphogenetic loci in mammals as well. As a step toward understanding the function of mammalian homeoboxes, we have used in situ hybridization to define the spatial pattern of expression of two mouse homeobox genes in the midgestational mouse embryo. The two mouse homeoboxes studied here, Hox 1.2 and Hox 1.4, are located 20 kilobases apart on mouse chromosome 6. Our results demonstrate the following: (i) Hox 1.2 transcripts are localized mainly in the posterior myelencephalon, in the cervical central nervous system (CNS), and in several thoracic prevertebrae; (ii) Hox 1.4 transcripts are localized mainly in the posterior myelencephalon and in the cervical CNS; (iii) within the CNS region expressing Hox 1.4, the level of Hox 1.4 transcripts is higher in the mantle layer than in the ependymal layer and higher in the dorsal than in the ventral area. The specific localization of Hox 1.2 and Hox 1.4 transcripts in the embryonic CNS and the restricted pattern of expression along the rostrocaudal axis are strikingly reminiscent of the expression pattern of Drosophila homeoboxes in the fly embryo and larvae. Despite the different developmental strategies adopted by Drosophila and mammals, functional similarities may exist between Drosophila and mammalian homeobox genes.

Murine Hox-1.7 homeo-box gene: cloning, chromosomal location, and expression

A new murine homeo-box, called Hox-1.7, has been identified in a rare cDNA from F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells. The Hox-1.7 homeo-box is 68 and 72% homologous to the Drosophila antennapedia (Antp) and iab-7 homeo-boxes, respectively. A major 2.5-kilobase transcript and several minor transcripts were detected by Northern blot (RNA blot) analysis in adult tissues as well as in midgestational embryos. The posterior spinal cord was found to be a major site of Hox-1.7 expression in 12.5-day-old embryos. Somatic cell hybrids were used to map the Hox-1.7 gene to mouse chromosome 6. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms associated with either the Hox-1.7 gene or the previously known Hox-1 complex were identified. Their distribution patterns in recombinant inbred mouse strains were used to determine the linkage between the two loci as well as to other loci on chromosome 6. This maps Hox-1 and Hox-1.7 close to two mouse loci that affect morphogenesis, postaxial hemimelia (px) and hypodactyly (Hd).

A mouse homeobox containing gene on chromosome 11: sequence and tissue-specific expression

We have molecularly cloned a mouse homeobox containing gene by isolating cDNA and genomic clones. The gene is located in a previously described cluster on chromosome 11 (Hart et al. (1985) Cell 43, 9-18) and was identified as the Hox2.3 gene. We present the complete mRNA sequence of this gene and describe similarities to other homeobox containing genes, among which its human homologue, the cl gene. High expression of the Hox2.3 gene was found in kidney, testis, and spinal cord of adult mice, in the spinal cord of 12.5-17.5 day embryos and in differentiating EC cells depending on their treatment. Three different treatments of the pluripotent EC cell line P19, each leading to the induction of a specific differentiation pathway, resulted in all cases in induction of Hox2.3; however, major quantitative differences in this response were observed.

The mouse Hox2.3 homeobox-containing gene: regulation in differentiating pluripotent stem cells and expression pattern in embryos

Genomic and cDNA clones of the mouse Hox2.3 gene have been isolated. Expression of this gene was characterized in differentiating embryonal carcinoma (EC) and embryonic stem (ES) cells, and in the 13.5-day embryo. Hox2.3 is expressed at a very low level, if at all, in undifferentiated ES and EC cells. As previously reported for the Hox1.1 and Hox2.1 genes, differentiation of pluripotent stem cells induced by a nonchemical method is not accompanied by strong accumulation of Hox2.3 transcripts. Treatment of the stem cells with a chemical inducer like retinoic acid (RA), and also hexamethylenebisacetamide (HMBA), or 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BUdR), simultaneously accelerates differentiation and stimulates accumulation of Hox2.3 mRNA to high levels. Addition of RA several days after the cells have been induced to differentiate by a nonchemical method induces Hox2.3-transcript accumulation as well. For comparison, expression of the En-1 gene, which contains a homeobox belonging to a different class from that of the Antennapedia-related Hox1.1, Hox2.1, and Hox2.3 genes, was analyzed. The En-1 gene was found also to be sensitive to this regulation by chemical inducers of differentiation. It was observed that treatment of undifferentiated EC cells with the inhibitor of protein synthesis cycloheximide resulted in slight accumulation of Hox2.3 mRNA, suggesting the involvement of a short-lived protein in keeping the level of homeobox-gene transcription low in EC cells. The highest level of Hox2.3 transcripts in 13.5-day embryos in vivo was observed in the spinal cord. Comparison with the expression pattern of three other homeobox genes revealed overlapping gradients of mRNA along the longitudinal brain-spinal-cord axis. An important question is that of the molecular basis for such a spatially restricted accumulation of homeobox transcripts. Hox2.3 is expressed at a much lower level in rat and mouse embryonic midbrain than in spinal cord in vivo. We have shown that addition of RA to primary cultures of cells from rat embryo mesencephalon leads to strong accumulation of Hox2.3 mRNA. A possible interpretation is that RA mimics one or more spatially restricted effectors, accounting for the local accumulation of Hox2.3 transcripts in the embryonic central nervous system. Control of Hox2.3 gene expression in vivo may obey some similar mechanisms as in chemically stimulated EC and ES cells in vitro.

AvaII RFLP at the human apolipoprotein CII (APO CII) gene locus

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Expression of the proto-oncogene int-1 is restricted to postmeiotic male germ cells and the neural tube of mid-gestational embryos

The int-1 proto-oncogene is transcriptionally activated in mammary tumors by mouse mammary tumor virus insertion mutations and is normally expressed only in adult mouse testes and mid-gestational embryos. We have used anatomical dissection of embryos, germ-cell fractionation, peripuberal expression studies, and spermatogenesis mutants to identify more precisely the tissues and cells that contain int-1 RNA. In the testis, int-1 RNA is detected only in postmeiotic germ cells undergoing differentiation from round spermatids into mature spermatozoa. In embryos 11-15 days after conception, expression of the gene is restricted to the developing central nervous system in regions of the neural tube other than the telencephalon. Our findings suggest that int-1 mediates developmental events at these two sites.

Homeo box genes in murine development

Considerable information has accumulated on mouse homeo box gene organization and expression. Homeo box genes are expressed in a wide variety of tissues, developmental stages, and cell lines. How can this be interpreted in view of the relationship of these genes to Drosophila morphogenetic loci? One view is that homeo box genes control determinative decisions by modulating transcription of as yet unidentified target genes. Proponents of this view are faced with two tasks: to identify developmental processes that are controlled by homeo box genes, and to identify the target genes that mediate this control. Such target genes might be identified on the basis of in vitro homeo domain-DNA interactions. Candidate morphogenetic processes might be identified on the basis of the observed patterns of homeo box gene expression. It must be stressed that finding expression in a given tissue in no way demonstrates that the expression is necessary for the determination of that tissue. The role of Drosophila homeo box genes in determinative decisions is based upon analysis of mutants to demonstrate that the pattern of homeo box gene expression determines the morphogenetic outcome. To test whether the expression of a mouse homeo box gene is involved in a determinative decision, one must disrupt the normal pattern of expression of that gene and observe the resulting morphogenetic effect. In mouse this can be approached by looking for allelism with known morphogenetic loci, by isolating mutants in homeo box genes through large-scale mutagenesis screens, or by introducing altered homeo box genes into transgenic mice. One of the most intriguing possibilities is that homeo box genes are involved in regional specification along the anteroposterior axis. In situ hybridization and Northern blot analysis have demonstrated that at least four different homeo box genes display distinct regional patterns of expression along the anteroposterior axis of the developing CNS. The expression of each of these genes has a unique anterior boundary from which expression extends posteriorly within the CNS. Hox 1.5 expression has an anterior boundary within the hindbrain just posterior to the pontine flexure. The anterior boundary of Hox 2.1 expression lies more posteriorly within the medulla of the hindbrain. Weak expression of Hox 2.5 is detected in the spinal cord just posterior to the first cervical vertebra, and maximal expression is found posterior to the second cervical vertebra.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)