Activation of Akt through gp130 receptor signaling is required for Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-induced lymphatic reprogramming of endothelial cells

KSHV and the pathogenesis of Kaposi sarcoma: listening to human biology and medicine

The linkage of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) to infection by a novel human herpesvirus (Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus [KSHV]) is one of the great successes of contemporary biomedical research and was achieved by using advanced genomic technologies in a manner informed by a nuanced understanding of epidemiology and clinical investigation. Ongoing efforts to understand the molecular mechanisms by which KSHV infection predisposes to KS continue to be powerfully influenced by insights emanating from the clinic. Here, recent developments in KS pathogenesis are reviewed, with particular emphasis on clinical, pathologic, and molecular observations that highlight the many differences between this process and tumorigenesis by other oncogenic viruses.

An exquisite cross-control mechanism among endothelial cell fate regulators directs the plasticity and heterogeneity of lymphatic endothelial cells

Arteriovenous-lymphatic endothelial cell fates are specified by the master regulators, namely, Notch, COUP-TFII, and Prox1. Whereas Notch is expressed in the arteries and COUP-TFII in the veins, the lymphatics express all 3 cell fate regulators. Previous studies show that lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) fate is highly plastic and reversible, raising a new concept that all 3 endothelial cell fates may co-reside in LECs and a subtle alteration can result in a reprogramming of LEC fate. We provide a molecular basis verifying this concept by identifying a cross-control mechanism among these cell fate regulators. We found that Notch signal down-regulates Prox1 and COUP-TFII through Hey1 and Hey2 and that activated Notch receptor suppresses the lymphatic phenotypes and induces the arterial cell fate. On the contrary, Prox1 and COUP-TFII attenuate vascular endothelial growth factor signaling, known to induce Notch, by repressing vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 and neuropilin-1. We show that previously reported podoplanin-based LEC heterogeneity is associated with differential expression of Notch1 in human cutaneous lymphatics. We propose that the expression of the 3 cell fate regulators is controlled by an exquisite feedback mechanism working in LECs and that LEC fate is a consequence of the Prox1-directed lymphatic equilibrium among the cell fate regulators.

Prox1 Facilitates Transfected CHO Cell Proliferation through Activation of the AKT Signaling Pathway

The homeobox transcription factor Prox1 plays an important role in the development of many embryonic organs. Previous studies indicated that Prox1 facilitates hepatic progenitor-cells proliferation. However, the underlying mechanism of Prox1 in tumor genesis, formation, and progression are poorly understood and need to be exploited. Herein, Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells were transfected and over-expressed human recombinant Prox1 gene, and developed several stable cell lines of Prox1-CHO after screening. The results indicated that over expression of Prox1 increased CHO cell proliferation in comparison to GFP-CHO and parental CHO cells, and Prox1 increased AKT phosphorylation and up-regulated PI3 Kinase expression. An AKT specific inhibitor-AKTi-X (5 μM) and a PI3 K inhibitor-LY294002 (5 μM) were able to reverse AKT phosphorylation and PI3 K expression induced by Prox1, respectively. Furthermore, AKTi-X but LY-294002 decreased Prox1-CHO cell proliferations at 48 and 72 h. Our results suggest that over expression of Prox1 facilitates CHO cell proliferation via activation of the AKT signaling pathway. This finding provides new insights into the mechanism of Prox1 mediated tumor growth and metastasis where Prox1 is rich.

Molecular biology of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and related oncogenesis

Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), is the most recently identified human tumor virus,and is associated with the pathogenesis of Kaposi's sarcoma and two lymphoproliferative disorders known to occur frequently in AIDS patients-primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman disease. In the 15 years since its discovery, intense studies have demonstrated an etiologic role for KSHV in the development of these malignancies. Here, we review the recent advances linked to understanding KSHV latent and lytic life cycle and the molecular mechanisms of KSHV-mediated oncogenesis in terms of transformation, cell signaling, cell growth and survival, angiogenesis, immune invasion and response to microenvironmental stress, and highlight the potential therapeutic targets for blocking KSHV tumorigenesis.

Cannabinoid 1 receptor and interleukin-6 receptor together induce integration of protein kinase and transcription factor signaling to trigger neurite outgrowth

Activation of the G(o/i)-coupled cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) has been shown to induce neurite outgrowth in Neuro2A cells through activation of Src kinase and STAT3 transcription factor. Signaling by the interleukin 6 receptor (IL-6R) also activates STAT3 through Jak kinase. We studied if signals from the two pathways could be integrated in a synergistic manner to trigger neurite outgrowth in Neuro2A cells. At low concentrations, when agonist at either receptor by itself has no effect, we found that CB1R and IL-6R stimulation together induced synergistic neurite outgrowth. Signal integration requires activation of transcription factors by Src, Jak, and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Mitogen-activated protein kinase can be activated by both receptors and shows enhanced early activation in the presence of both ligands. CREB and STAT3 transcription factors are required for synergy and show enhanced DNA-binding activity when both receptors are activated. STAT3 plays a critical role in integration of the signals downstream of the two receptors. When both pathways are activated, STAT3 phosphorylation is sustained for 6 h. This prolonged activation of STAT3 requires deactivation of SHP2 phosphatase. Reduction of SHP2 levels by RNA interference results in greater synergy in neurite outgrowth. Simultaneous knockdown of both SHP2 and STAT3 blocks the synergistic triggering of neurite outgrowth, indicating that STAT3 is downstream of SHP2. CB1R and IL-6R co-stimulation enhanced the differentiation of rat cortical neuron primary cultures. These results provide a mechanism where multiple protein kinases and transcription factors interact to integrate signals from G protein-coupled and cytokine receptor to evoke neurite outgrowth in Neuro2A cells.

Cytokine signalling via gp130 in gastric cancer

Cytokine signalling pathways that depend on gp130 are dysregulated in several epithelial cancers including gastric cancer. It has been established that blockade of SHP2 activation of MAPK signalling results in hyperactivation of STAT3 resulting in increased cell proliferation, angiogenesis, inflammation and inhibition of both immunocyte and epithelial cell apoptosis. Additionally, key genes regulated downstream of gp130 via MAPK activation such as the stomach-specific tumor suppressor gene tff1 are suppressed, contributing to the oncogenic outcome. The main cytokine driver of gp130 signalling in the stomach is IL-11, with IL-6 having little activity in the antral stomach in which most pathology initiates. IL-11 is up-regulated in both mouse and human gastric cancer and in pre-neoplastic mucosa. A characteristic gene signature specifically associated with IL-11 drive has been observed, although the prognostic value of the signature has not yet been assessed. Infection of human or mouse stomach with Helicobacter pylori, especially that expressing the CagA cytotoxin, produces constitutive MAPK activation, but also activated STAT3 and increases IL-11 expression. The possibility of designing and utilising small molecule inhibitors of either IL-11 or STAT3 activation may be worthwhile in developing new cancer therapeutics.