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Emerging nanodelivery strategies of RNAi molecules for colon cancer therapy: preclinical developments. Ther Deliv 2012; 3:1117-30. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.12.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although local colonic delivery is achievable through several strategies, colon cancer is still considered one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Failure of chemotherapeutics to exhibit efficient anticancer activity might be attributed to the development of multidrug resistance (MDR) mechanisms including the overexpression of certain oncogenes such as MDR1/P-gp. One of the major reasons for the shortcoming of P-gp inhibitors in clinic is the nonspecific distribution of them to nontarget organs, which leads to reduced elimination and increased toxicity of its substrates including anticancer agents. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of gene-silencing approaches in reversing the P-gp-mediated MDR. However, none have reached clinical trials yet. Several drug-delivery systems have been investigated primarily to address P-gp and the observed improved anticancer efficacy suggests that nanomedicine provides new opportunities to overcome MDR in cancer. In this review, novel therapeutic strategies for colon cancer therapy will be discussed in the context of P-gp inhibition by low-molecular-weight agents and RNAi molecules.
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Abstract
Cancers so much resemble self that they prove difficult for the immune system to eliminate, and those that have already escaped natural immunosurveillance have gotten past the natural immune barriers to malignancy. A successful therapeutic cancer vaccine must overcome these escape mechanisms. Our laboratory has focused on a multistep "push-pull" approach in which we combine strategies to overcome each of the mechanisms of escape. If tumor epitopes are insufficiently immunogenic, we increase their immunogenicity by epitope enhancement, improving their binding affinity to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. If the anti-tumor response is too weak or of the wrong phenotype, we use cytokines, costimulatory molecules, Toll-like receptor ligands, and other molecular adjuvants to increase not only the quantity of the response but also its quality, to push the response in the right direction. Finally, the tumor invokes multiple immunosuppressive mechanisms to defend itself, so we need to overcome those as well, including blocking or depleting regulatory cells or inhibiting regulatory molecules, to pull the response by removing the brakes. Some of these strategies individually have now been translated into human clinical trials in cancer patients. Combinations of these in a push-pull approach are promising for the successful immunotherapy of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Berzofsky
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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53
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Barderas R, Bartolomé RA, Fernandez-Aceñero MJ, Torres S, Casal JI. High expression of IL-13 receptor α2 in colorectal cancer is associated with invasion, liver metastasis, and poor prognosis. Cancer Res 2012; 72:2780-90. [PMID: 22505647 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-4090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Autocrine secretion of cytokines by metastatic colorectal cancer cells and their role during invasion and liver homing has been poorly characterized. In this study, we used cytokine arrays to analyze the secretomes of poorly and highly metastatic colorectal cancer cells. Compared with poorly metastatic cancer cells, highly metastatic cells expressed increased levels of the immunosuppressive cytokines interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 in addition to increased surface expression of the high affinity IL-13 receptor IL-13Rα2, suggesting that IL-13Rα2 mediates IL-13 effects in colorectal cancer cells. Silencing of IL-13Rα2 in highly metastatic cells led to a decrease in adhesion capacity in vitro and a reduction in liver homing and increased survival in vivo, revealing a role for this receptor in cell adhesion, migration, invasion, and metastatic colonization. In support of this, IL-13 signaling activated the oncogenic signaling molecules phosphoinositide 3-kinase, AKT, and SRC in highly metastatic cells. Clinically, high expression of IL-13Rα2 was associated with later stages of disease progression and poor outcome in patients with colorectal cancer. Our findings therefore support a critical role for IL-13Rα2 expression in colon cancer invasion and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Barderas
- Functional Proteomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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54
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Nakashima H, Husain SR, Puri RK. IL-13 receptor-directed cancer vaccines and immunotherapy. Immunotherapy 2012; 4:443-51. [DOI: 10.2217/imt.12.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many immunotherapy approaches including therapeutic cancer vaccines targeting specific tumor-associated antigens are at various stages of development. Although the significance of overexpression of (IL-13Rα2) in cancer is being actively investigated, we have reported that IL-13Rα2 is a novel tumor-associated antigen. The IL-13Rα2-directed cancer vaccine is one of the most promising approaches to tumor immunotherapy, because of the selective expression of IL-13Rα2 in various solid tumor types but not in normal tissues. In this article, we will summarize its present status and potential strategies to improve IL-13Rα2-directed cancer vaccines for an optimal therapy of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideyuki Nakashima
- Tumor Vaccines & Biotechnology Branch, Division of Cellular & Gene Therapies, Food & Drug Administration, Center for Biologics Evaluation & Research, NIH Building 29B, Room 2NN20, 29 Lincoln Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Syed R Husain
- Tumor Vaccines & Biotechnology Branch, Division of Cellular & Gene Therapies, Food & Drug Administration, Center for Biologics Evaluation & Research, NIH Building 29B, Room 2NN20, 29 Lincoln Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Raj K Puri
- Tumor Vaccines & Biotechnology Branch, Division of Cellular & Gene Therapies, Food & Drug Administration, Center for Biologics Evaluation & Research, NIH Building 29B, Room 2NN20, 29 Lincoln Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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55
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Brown CE, Starr R, Aguilar B, Shami AF, Martinez C, D'Apuzzo M, Barish ME, Forman SJ, Jensen MC. Stem-like tumor-initiating cells isolated from IL13Rα2 expressing gliomas are targeted and killed by IL13-zetakine-redirected T Cells. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18:2199-209. [PMID: 22407828 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate IL13Rα2 as an immunotherapeutic target for eliminating glioma stem-like cancer initiating cells (GSC) of high-grade gliomas, with particular focus on the potential of genetically engineered IL13Rα2-specific primary human CD8(+) CTLs (IL13-zetakine(+) CTL) to target this therapeutically resistant glioma subpopulation. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN A panel of low-passage GSC tumor sphere (TS) and serum-differentiated glioma lines were expanded from patient glioblastoma specimens. These glioblastoma lines were evaluated for expression of IL13Rα2 and for susceptibility to IL13-zetakine(+) CTL-mediated killing in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS We observed that although glioma IL13Rα2 expression varies between patients, for IL13Rα2(pos) cases this antigen was detected on both GSCs and more differentiated tumor cell populations. IL13-zetakine(+) CTL were capable of efficient recognition and killing of both IL13Rα2(pos) GSCs and IL13Rα2(pos) differentiated cells in vitro, as well as eliminating glioma-initiating activity in an orthotopic mouse tumor model. Furthermore, intracranial administration of IL13-zetakine(+) CTL displayed robust antitumor activity against established IL13Rα2(pos) GSC TS-initiated orthotopic tumors in mice. CONCLUSIONS Within IL13Rα2 expressing high-grade gliomas, this receptor is expressed by GSCs and differentiated tumor populations, rendering both targetable by IL13-zetakine(+) CTLs. Thus, our results support the potential usefullness of IL13Rα2-directed immunotherapeutic approaches for eradicating therapeutically resistant GSC populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E Brown
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapy & Tumor Immunology and Hematology & Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, Pathology, and Neurosciences, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA.
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56
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Immune responses triggering colitis and colitis-associated carcinoma. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2012; 397:527-33. [PMID: 22382701 DOI: 10.1007/s00423-012-0927-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases compromise of two forms of chronic intestinal inflammatory disorders: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Both forms of inflammatory bowel disease result from inappropriate inflammatory responses to the intestinal microbiota, but have different underlying immune responses. The connection between inflammation and cancer has long been established and longstanding inflammatory bowel diseases are an important risk factor for developing colorectal cancer. Colitis-associated colorectal cancer pathogenesis is highly influenced by specific inflammatory processes during inflammatory bowel disease. This article reviews the immunological responses affecting Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis as well as the linkage of inflammatory bowel disease to the development of colitis-associated cancer. Finally, we discuss the prospects of using new research efforts to devise new immunotherapeutic approaches.
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57
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Schiechl G, Bauer B, Fuss I, Lang SA, Moser C, Ruemmele P, Rose-John S, Neurath MF, Geissler EK, Schlitt HJ, Strober W, Fichtner-Feigl S. Tumor development in murine ulcerative colitis depends on MyD88 signaling of colonic F4/80+CD11b(high)Gr1(low) macrophages. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:1692-708. [PMID: 21519141 DOI: 10.1172/jci42540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with prolonged ulcerative colitis (UC) frequently develop colorectal adenocarcinoma for reasons that are not fully clear. To analyze inflammation-associated colonic tumorigenesis, we developed a chronic form of oxazolone-induced colitis in mice that, similar to UC, was distinguished by the presence of IL-13-producing NKT cells. In this model, the induction of tumors using azoxymethane was accompanied by the coappearance of F4/80+CD11b(high)Gr1(low) M2 macrophages, cells that undergo polarization by IL-13 and are absent in tumors that lack high level IL-13 production. Importantly, this subset of macrophages was a source of tumor-promoting factors, including IL-6. Similar to dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis, F4/80+CD11b(high)Gr1(intermediate) macrophages were present in the mouse model of chronic oxazolone-induced colitis and may influence tumor development through production of TGF-β1, a cytokine that inhibits tumor immunosurveillance. Finally, while robust chronic oxazolone-induced colitis developed in myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88-deficient (Myd88-/-) mice, these mice did not support tumor development. The inhibition of tumor development in Myd88-/- mice correlated with cessation of IL-6 and TGF-β1 production by M2 and F4/80+CD11b(high)Gr1(intermediate) macrophages, respectively, and was reversed by exogenous IL-6. These data show that an UC-like inflammation may facilitate tumor development by providing a milieu favoring development of MyD88-dependent tumor-supporting macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Schiechl
- Department of Surgery, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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58
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Takenouchi M, Hirai S, Sakuragi N, Yagita H, Hamada H, Kato K. Epigenetic modulation enhances the therapeutic effect of anti-IL-13R(alpha)2 antibody in human mesothelioma xenografts. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:2819-29. [PMID: 21357681 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-10-2986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The interleukin-13 receptor α2 (IL-13Rα2) is expressed by a variety of human malignant cells. Here, we have examined the constitutive surface expression and the epigenetic regulation of IL-13Rα2 by human mesothelioma. We have also investigated the therapeutic effect of the DNA methylation inhibitor 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC) and anti-IL-13Rα2 monoclonal antibody on mesothelioma xenografts. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Cell surface expression of IL-13Rα2 by various lung carcinomas was analyzed using flow cytometry. Therapeutic effects of anti-IL-13Rα2 and 5-aza-dC were investigated using antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and proliferation assays and by monitoring the survival of mesothelioma-bearing mice. RESULTS We found that human malignant mesotheliomas expressed surface IL-13Rα2 on their surface and that it was upregulated by treatment with 5-aza-dC. This augmented expression of IL-13Rα2 resulted in growth inhibition of the mesothelioma cells when cocultured with anti-IL-13Rα2 and effector cells, such as splenocytes and peritoneal exudate cells. The growth inhibition of mesothelioma cells was mediated by IFN-γ that was only detected in the supernatant when effector cells were exposed to 5-aza-dC-treated tumors in the presence of anti-IL-13Rα2. Compared with the control or either regimen alone, in vivo administration of anti-IL-13Rα2 in combination with 5-aza-dC significantly prolonged the survival of mice with mesothelioma xenografts. CONCLUSIONS These observations indicate a promising role for IL-13Rα2 as a target for antibody treatment in malignant mesothelioma, and, in combination with epigenetic regulation by a DNA methylation inhibitor, suggest the potential for a novel strategy to enhance therapeutic potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Takenouchi
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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59
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O'Konek JJ, Illarionov P, Khursigara DS, Ambrosino E, Izhak L, Castillo BF, Raju R, Khalili M, Kim HY, Howell AR, Besra GS, Porcelli SA, Berzofsky JA, Terabe M. Mouse and human iNKT cell agonist β-mannosylceramide reveals a distinct mechanism of tumor immunity. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:683-94. [PMID: 21245578 DOI: 10.1172/jci42314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 1 or invariant NKT (iNKT) cell agonists, epitomized by α-galactosylceramide, protect against cancer largely by IFN-γ-dependent mechanisms. Here we describe what we believe to be a novel IFN-γ-independent mechanism induced by β-mannosylceramide, which also defines a potentially new class of iNKT cell agonist, with an unusual β-linked sugar. Like α-galactosylceramide, β-mannosylceramide directly activates iNKT cells from both mice and humans. In contrast to α-galactosylceramide, protection by β-mannosylceramide was completely dependent on NOS and TNF-α, neither of which was required to achieve protection with α-galactosylceramide. Moreover, at doses too low for either alone to protect, β-mannosylceramide synergized with α-galactosylceramide to protect mice against tumors. These results suggest that treatment with β-mannosylceramide provides a distinct mechanism of tumor protection that may allow efficacy where other agonists have failed. Furthermore, the ability of β-mannosylceramide to synergize with α-galactosylceramide suggests treatment with this class of iNKT agonist may provide protection against tumors in humans.
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60
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Feagins LA. Role of transforming growth factor-β in inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated colon cancer. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2010; 16:1963-8. [PMID: 20848467 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) plays a central role in a wide array of cellular functions including control of cell growth and differentiation, embryonic development, wound healing, angiogenesis, and immune regulation. In the gastrointestinal tract, TGF-β can either promote or suppress inflammation and cancer formation. This report reviews recent data on the role of TGF-β in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease and how TGF-β might contribute to the cancer risk associated with chronic inflammation of the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda A Feagins
- Divisions of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, VA North Texas Health Care System, and University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA.
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61
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Lupardus PJ, Birnbaum ME, Garcia KC. Molecular basis for shared cytokine recognition revealed in the structure of an unusually high affinity complex between IL-13 and IL-13Ralpha2. Structure 2010; 18:332-42. [PMID: 20223216 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 01/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-13 is a cytokine important for development of T helper cell type 2 (Th2) responses and plays a critical role in asthma and allergy. The IL-13 Receptor alpha2 (IL-13Ralpha2) is a receptor for IL-13 lacking canonical Jak/STAT signaling functions. Here we present the crystal structure along with a mutational and biophysical analysis of the IL-13/IL-13Ralpha2 complex. While retaining a similar mode of IL-13 binding to its related signaling receptor, IL-13Ralpha1, IL-13Ralpha2 uses peripheral receptor residues unused in the IL-13/IL-13Ralpha1 complex to generate a larger and more complementary interface for IL-13. This results in a four orders of magnitude increase in affinity, to the femtomolar level, compared to IL-13Ralpha1. Alanine scanning mutagenesis of the IL-13 interface reveals several common "hotspot" residues important for binding to both receptors, but also identifies a prominent IL-13Ralpha2-specific contact. These results provide a framework for development of receptor subtype-selective IL-13 antagonists and indicate a decoy function for IL-13Ralpha2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Lupardus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Department of Structural Biology, and Program in Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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62
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Gordon S, Martinez FO. Alternative activation of macrophages: mechanism and functions. Immunity 2010; 32:593-604. [PMID: 20510870 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2915] [Impact Index Per Article: 208.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Revised: 05/10/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The concept of an alternative pathway of macrophage activation has stimulated interest in its definition, mechanism, and functional significance in homeostasis and disease. We assess recent research in this field, argue for a restricted definition, and explore pathways by which the T helper 2 (Th2) cell cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-13 mediate their effects on macrophage cell biology, their biosynthesis, and responses to a normal and pathological microenvironment. The stage is now set to gain deeper insights into the role of alternatively activated macrophages in immunobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siamon Gordon
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK.
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63
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Myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment: modulation of tumor angiogenesis and tumor inflammation. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2010; 2010:201026. [PMID: 20490273 PMCID: PMC2871549 DOI: 10.1155/2010/201026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2009] [Revised: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid cells are a heterogeneous population of bone marrow-derived cells that play a critical role during growth and metastasis of malignant tumors. Tumors exhibit significant myeloid cell infiltrates, which are actively recruited to the tumor microenvironment. Myeloid cells promote tumor growth by stimulating tumor angiogenesis, suppressing tumor immunity, and promoting metastasis to distinct sites. In this review, we discuss the role of myeloid cells in promoting tumor angiogenesis. Furthermore, we describe a subset of myeloid cells with immunosuppressive activity (known as myeloid-derived suppressor cells). Finally, we will comment on the mechanisms regulating myeloid cell recruitment to the tumor microenvironment and on the potential of myeloid cells as new targets for cancer therapy.
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64
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Takaku S, Terabe M, Ambrosino E, Peng J, Lonning S, McPherson JM, Berzofsky JA. Blockade of TGF-beta enhances tumor vaccine efficacy mediated by CD8(+) T cells. Int J Cancer 2010; 126:1666-74. [PMID: 19830696 PMCID: PMC2818422 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Though TGF-beta inhibition enhances antitumor immunity mediated by CD8(+) T cells in several tumor models, it is not always sufficient for rejection of tumors. In this study, to maximize the antitumor effect of TGF-beta blockade, we tested the effect of anti-TGF-beta combined with an irradiated tumor vaccine in a subcutaneous CT26 colon carcinoma tumor model. The irradiated tumor cell vaccine alone in prophylactic setting significantly delayed tumor growth, whereas anti-TGF-beta antibodies alone did not show any antitumor effect. However, tumor growth was inhibited significantly more in vaccinated mice treated with anti-TGF-beta antibodies compared to vaccinated mice without anti-TGF-beta, suggesting that anti-TGF-beta synergistically enhanced irradiated tumor vaccine efficacy. CD8(+) T-cell depletion completely abrogated the vaccine efficacy, and so protection required CD8(+) T cells. Depletion of CD25(+) T regulatory cells led to the almost complete rejection of tumors without the vaccine, whereas anti-TGF-beta did not change the number of CD25(+) T regulatory cells in unvaccinated and vaccinated mice. Though the abrogation of CD1d-restricted NKT cells, which have been reported to induce TGF-beta production by MDSC through an IL-13-IL-4R-STAT6 pathway, partially enhanced antitumor immunity regardless of vaccination, abrogation of the NKT cell-IL-13-IL-4R-STAT-6 immunoregulatory pathway did not enhance vaccine efficacy. Taken together, these data indicated that anti-TGF-beta enhances efficacy of a prophylactic vaccine in normal individuals despite their not having the elevated TGF-beta levels found in patients with cancer and that the effect is not dependent on TGF-beta solely from CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory cells or the NKT cell-IL-13-IL-4R-STAT-6 immunoregulatory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Takaku
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Masaki Terabe
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Elena Ambrosino
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | - Judy Peng
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
| | | | | | - Jay A. Berzofsky
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
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65
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Lu H, Wagner WM, Gad E, Yang Y, Duan H, Amon LM, Van Denend N, Larson ER, Chang A, Tufvesson H, Disis ML. Treatment failure of a TLR-7 agonist occurs due to self-regulation of acute inflammation and can be overcome by IL-10 blockade. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:5360-7. [PMID: 20308630 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Multiple TLR agonists have been shown to have antitumor effects in animal models. However, the therapeutic efficacy of TLR agonist monotherapy in cancer treatment has been limited, and the mechanisms of failure remain unknown. We demonstrate that topical treatment with a TLR-7 agonist, imiquimod, can elicit significant regression of spontaneous breast cancers in neu transgenic mice, a model of human HER-2/neu(+) breast cancer. However, tumor growth progressed once imiquimod therapy was ended. Gene expression analysis using tumor-derived RNA demonstrated that imiquimod induced high levels of IL-10 in addition to TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma. Elevated levels of circulating IL-10 were also detected in sera from imiquimod-treated mice. Elevated serum IL-10 appeared to be derived from IL-10 and dual cytokine secreting (IFN-gamma(+) and IL-10(+)) CD4(+) T cells rather than CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T regulatory cells, which were also induced by imiquimod treatment. Blockade of IL-10, but not TGF-beta, enhanced the antitumor effect of imiquimod by significantly prolonging survival in treated mice. These data suggest that the excessive inflammation induced by TLR agonists may result in a self-regulatory immunosuppression via IL-10 induction and that blocking IL-10 could enhance the therapeutic efficacy of these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailing Lu
- Tumor Vaccine Group, Center for Translational Medicine in Women's Health, 815 Mercer Street, Room 220, Box 358050, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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66
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Currie AJ, Prosser A, McDonnell A, Cleaver AL, Robinson BWS, Freeman GJ, van der Most RG. Dual control of antitumor CD8 T cells through the programmed death-1/programmed death-ligand 1 pathway and immunosuppressive CD4 T cells: regulation and counterregulation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 183:7898-908. [PMID: 20007574 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tumors have evolved multiple mechanisms to evade immune destruction. One of these is expression of T cell inhibitory ligands such as programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1; B7-H1). In this study, we show that PD-L1 is highly expressed on mesothelioma tumor cells and within the tumor stroma. However, PD-L1 blockade only marginally affected tumor growth and was associated with the emergence of activated programmed death-1(+) ICOS(+) CD4 T cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes, whereas few activated CD8 T cells were present. Full activation of antitumor CD8 T cells, characterized as programmed death-1(+) ICOS(+) Ki-67(+) and displaying CTL activity, was only observed when CD4 T cells were depleted, suggesting that a population of suppressive CD4 T cells exists. ICOS(+) foxp3(+) regulatory T cells were found to be regulated through PD-L1, identifying one potentially suppressive CD4 T cell population. Thus, PD-L1 blockade activates antitumor CD8 T cell most potently in the absence of CD4 T cells. These findings have implications for the development of PD-L1-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Currie
- National Centre for Asbestos Related Diseases, School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
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67
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Strober W, Kitani A, Fichtner-Feigl S, Fuss IJ. The signaling function of the IL-13Ralpha2 receptor in the development of gastrointestinal fibrosis and cancer surveillance. Curr Mol Med 2009; 9:740-50. [PMID: 19689301 PMCID: PMC11005999 DOI: 10.2174/156652409788970652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The IL-13Ralpha2 receptor is a high affinity receptor for IL-13 that is used only by IL-13 and is quite distinct from the well known IL-13Ralpha1 receptor that IL-13 shares with IL-4. It was widely considered to be a secreted receptor that is devoid of signaling activity and functional only as a decoy receptor that retarded signaling via IL-13Ralpha1. In recent studies, however, it was shown to be capable of robust signaling that results in production of TGF-beta1 and through the latter cytokine, the induction of fibrosis occuring in various experimental inflammatory states. Thus, in initial studies, IL-13 signaling via IL-13Ralpha2 was shown to play an important role in the fibrosis developing in both oxazolone colitis and bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis; later, it was also shown to be critical to the development of fibrosis in a model of chronic colitis induced by trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS). These studies suggest that blockade of IL-13 or IL-13Ralpha2 signaling might be an excellent target for the prevention of inflammation-associated fibrosis. A second role of IL-13 signaling via IL-13Ralpha2 is in tumor immune surveillance. Thus, in the relevant studies it was shown that NKT cells stimulated by tumor antigens produce IL-13 that then acts on Gr-1 cells to induce TGF-beta1; the latter then inhibits CD8+ T cells engaged in tumor immune surveillance; in effect, then, receptor signaling favors tumor growth. In addition to its signaling function and the induction of TGF-beta1, IL-13Ralpha2 also influences IL-13Ralpha1 signaling in complex ways; thus, IL-13Ralpha2 emerges as a important component of IL-13 signaling, not only in its own right but also in its possible effect on its companion receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren Strober
- Mucosal Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Atsushi Kitani
- Mucosal Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Stefan Fichtner-Feigl
- Department of Surgery, University of Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ivan J. Fuss
- Mucosal Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Ostrand-Rosenberg S, Sinha P. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells: linking inflammation and cancer. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:4499-506. [PMID: 19342621 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1317] [Impact Index Per Article: 87.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Many cancer immunotherapies developed in experimental animals have been tested in clinical trials. Although some have shown modest clinical effects, most have not been effective. Recent studies have identified myeloid-origin cells that are potent suppressors of tumor immunity and therefore a significant impediment to cancer immunotherapy. "Myeloid-derived suppressor cells" (MDSC) accumulate in the blood, lymph nodes, and bone marrow and at tumor sites in most patients and experimental animals with cancer and inhibit both adaptive and innate immunity. MDSC are induced by tumor-secreted and host-secreted factors, many of which are proinflammatory molecules. The induction of MDSC by proinflammatory mediators led to the hypothesis that inflammation promotes the accumulation of MDSC that down-regulate immune surveillance and antitumor immunity, thereby facilitating tumor growth. This article reviews the characterization and suppressive mechanisms used by MDSC to block tumor immunity and describes the mechanisms by which inflammation promotes tumor progression through the induction of MDSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Ostrand-Rosenberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
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Abstract
NKT cells are a relatively newly recognized member of the immune community, with profound effects on the rest of the immune system despite their small numbers. They are true T cells with a T cell receptor (TCR), but unlike conventional T cells that detect peptide antigens presented by conventional major histocompatibility (MHC) molecules, NKT cells recognize lipid antigens presented by CD1d, a nonclassical MHC molecule. As members of both the innate and adaptive immune systems, they bridge the gap between these, and respond rapidly to set the tone for subsequent immune responses. They fill a unique niche in providing the immune system a cellular arm to recognize lipid antigens. They play both effector and regulatory roles in infectious and autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, subsets of NKT cells can play distinct and sometimes opposing roles. In cancer, type I NKT cells, defined by their invariant TCR using Valpha14Jalpha18 in mice and Valpha24Jalpha18 in humans, are mostly protective, by producing interferon-gamma to activate NK and CD8(+) T cells and by activating dendritic cells to make IL-12. In contrast, type II NKT cells, characterized by more diverse TCRs recognizing lipids presented by CD1d, primarily inhibit tumor immunity. Moreover, type I and type II NKT cells counter-regulate each other, forming a new immunoregulatory axis. Because NKT cells respond rapidly, the balance along this axis can greatly influence other immune responses that follow. Therefore, learning to manipulate the balance along the NKT regulatory axis may be critical to devising successful immunotherapies for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Terabe
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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