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Yadav SS, Li J, Lavery HJ, Yadav KK, Tewari AK. Next-generation sequencing technology in prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized treatment. Urol Oncol 2015; 33:267.e1-13. [PMID: 25791755 DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the genetic information of cancer cells has revolutionized the field of cancer biology, including prostate cancer (PCa). New recurrent alterations have been identified in PCa (e.g., TMPRSS2-ERG translocation, SPOP and CHD1 mutations, and chromoplexy), and many previous ones in well-established pathways have been validated (e.g., androgen receptor overexpression and mutations; PTEN, RB1, and TP53 loss/mutations). With its highly heterogeneous nature, PCa continues to pose a tremendous challenge in terms of diagnosis and prognosis. Combining the information gained through NGS studies with clinicopathological and radiological data will help diagnose the aggressiveness of the cancer with greater accuracy. Furthermore, understanding the heterogeneity of tumor through single-cell or single-molecule sequencing technology will also strengthen the prognosis and provide better, patient-specific drug identification. As this research becomes more prominent, it is important that urologic oncologists become familiar with the various NGS technologies and the results generated using them. We highlight the commonly used NGS tools and summarize recent discoveries relevant to PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini S Yadav
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY
| | - Jinyi Li
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY
| | - Hugh J Lavery
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY
| | - Kamlesh K Yadav
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY.
| | - Ashutosh K Tewari
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY.
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Barbieri CE, Tomlins SA. Reprint of: The prostate cancer genome: Perspectives and potential. Urol Oncol 2015; 33:95-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Plotnik JP, Budka JA, Ferris MW, Hollenhorst PC. ETS1 is a genome-wide effector of RAS/ERK signaling in epithelial cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2014; 42:11928-40. [PMID: 25294825 PMCID: PMC4231772 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gku929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The RAS/ERK pathway is commonly activated in carcinomas and promotes oncogenesis by altering transcriptional programs. However, the array of cis-regulatory elements and trans-acting factors that mediate these transcriptional changes is still unclear. Our genome-wide analysis determined that a sequence consisting of neighboring ETS and AP-1 transcription factor binding sites is enriched near cell migration genes activated by RAS/ERK signaling in epithelial cells. In vivo screening of candidate ETS proteins revealed that ETS1 is specifically required for migration of RAS/ERK activated cells. Furthermore, both migration and transcriptional activation through ETS/AP-1 required ERK phosphorylation of ETS1. Genome-wide mapping of multiple ETS proteins demonstrated that ETS1 binds specifically to enhancer ETS/AP-1 sequences. ETS1 occupancy, and its role in cell migration, was conserved in epithelial cells derived from multiple tissues, consistent with a chromatin organization common to epithelial cell lines. Genome-wide expression analysis showed that ETS1 was required for activation of RAS-regulated cell migration genes, but also identified a surprising role for ETS1 in the repression of genes such as DUSP4, DUSP6 and SPRY4 that provide negative feedback to the RAS/ERK pathway. Consistently, ETS1 was required for robust RAS/ERK pathway activation. Therefore, ETS1 has dual roles in mediating epithelial-specific RAS/ERK transcriptional functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P Plotnik
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Justin A Budka
- Medical Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Mary W Ferris
- Medical Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Peter C Hollenhorst
- Medical Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
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Blocking anaplerotic entry of glutamine into the TCA cycle sensitizes K-Ras mutant cancer cells to cytotoxic drugs. Oncogene 2014; 34:2672-80. [PMID: 25023699 PMCID: PMC4418945 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2014.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells undergo a metabolic transformation that allows for increased anabolic demands, wherein glycolytic and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates are shunted away for the synthesis of biological molecules required for cell growth and division. One of the key shunts is the exit of citrate from the mitochondria and the TCA cycle for the generation of cytosolic acetyl-coenzyme A that can be used for fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis. With the loss of mitochondrial citrate, cancer cells rely on the 'conditionally essential' amino acid glutamine (Q) as an anaplerotic carbon source for TCA cycle intermediates. Although Q deprivation causes G1 cell cycle arrest in non-transformed cells, its impact on the cancer cell cycle is not well characterized. We report here a correlation between bypass of the Q-dependent G1 checkpoint and cancer cells harboring K-Ras mutations. Instead of arresting in G1 in response to Q-deprivation, K-Ras-driven cancer cells arrest in either S- or G2/M-phase. Inhibition of K-Ras effector pathways was able to revert cells to G1 arrest upon Q deprivation. Blocking anaplerotic utilization of Q mimicked Q deprivation--causing S- and G2/M-phase arrest in K-Ras mutant cancer cells. Significantly, Q deprivation or suppression of anaplerotic Q utilization created synthetic lethality to the cell cycle phase-specific cytotoxic drugs, capecitabine and paclitaxel. These data suggest that disabling of the G1 Q checkpoint could represent a novel vulnerability of cancer cells harboring K-Ras and possibly other mutations that disable the Q-dependent checkpoint.
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Li JG, She MR, Lu CY, Wei SS, Xia PF, Lu ZS, Peng Q. Manumycin induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. Onco Targets Ther 2014; 7:771-7. [PMID: 24899815 PMCID: PMC4039403 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s60253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Manumycin exhibits an antitumor effect in a variety of cancer cell lines, including prostate cancer cell lines (DU145 and PC-3). Our previous studies demonstrated that manumycin induced the apoptosis of anaplastic thyroid cancer cells and leukemia cells via the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. In the current study, we further evaluated the effect of manumycin in two prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and 22Rv1), and here we elucidate some of the underlying mechanisms. Materials and methods The cell viability of prostate cancer cells was measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay after treatment with manumycin for 48 hours. Apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry using annexin V and propidium iodide. The expressions of B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 family members and the activations of caspase-9 and caspase-3 were detected by Western blotting. Results Manumycin treatment resulted in significant decreases in the viabilities of the two prostate cancer cell lines in a dose-dependent manner through apoptosis, and this apoptosis involved caspase-9 activation. A specific inhibitor of caspase-9 protected cells from caspase-3 activation, apoptosis, and cytotoxicity induced by manumycin. We also found that manumycin downregulated Bcl-2 expression and upregulated Bax expression. Conclusion Our data suggest that manumycin induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells through regulation of the Bcl-2 family involving caspase-9 activation. These results suggest that manumycin may be beneficial for the treatment of prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Gao Li
- Department of Nephrology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, China
| | - Miao-Rong She
- Department of Hematology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Ci-Yong Lu
- School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shan-Shan Wei
- Department of Hematology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Ping-Fang Xia
- Department of Hematology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Ze-Sheng Lu
- Department of Hematology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Qi Peng
- Department of Hematology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
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Fan Y, Ge N, Wang X, Sun W, Mao R, Bu W, Creighton CJ, Zheng P, Vasudevan S, An L, Yang J, Zhao YJ, Zhang H, Li XN, Rao PH, Leung E, Lu YJ, Gray JW, Schiff R, Hilsenbeck SG, Osborne CK, Yang J, Zhang H. Amplification and over-expression of MAP3K3 gene in human breast cancer promotes formation and survival of breast cancer cells. J Pathol 2014; 232:75-86. [PMID: 24122835 DOI: 10.1002/path.4283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Gene amplifications in the 17q chromosomal region are observed frequently in breast cancers. An integrative bioinformatics analysis of this region nominated the MAP3K3 gene as a potential therapeutic target in breast cancer. This gene encodes mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 3 (MAP3K3/MEKK3), which has not yet been reported to be associated with cancer-causing genetic aberrations. We found that MAP3K3 was amplified in approximately 8-20% of breast cancers. Knockdown of MAP3K3 expression significantly inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation in MAP3K3-amplified breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-361 but not in MAP3K3 non-amplified breast cancer cells. Knockdown of MAP3K3 expression in MAP3K3-amplified breast cancer cells sensitized breast cancer cells to apoptotic induction by TNFα and TRAIL, as well as doxorubicin, VP-16 and fluorouracil, three commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs for treating breast cancer. In addition, ectopic expression of MAP3K3, in collaboration with Ras, induced colony formation in both primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts and immortalized human breast epithelial cells (MCF-10A). Combined, these results suggest that MAP3K3 contributes to breast carcinogenesis and may endow resistance of breast cancer cells to cytotoxic chemotherapy. Therefore, MAP3K3 may be a valuable therapeutic target in patients with MAP3K3-amplified breast cancers, and blocking MAP3K3 kinase activity with a small molecule inhibitor may sensitize MAP3K3-amplified breast cancer cells to chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihui Fan
- Texas Children's Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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Selvaraj N, Budka JA, Ferris MW, Jerde TJ, Hollenhorst PC. Prostate cancer ETS rearrangements switch a cell migration gene expression program from RAS/ERK to PI3K/AKT regulation. Mol Cancer 2014; 13:61. [PMID: 24642271 PMCID: PMC3999933 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-13-61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The RAS/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways induce oncogenic gene expression programs and are commonly activated together in cancer cells. Often, RAS/ERK signaling is activated by mutation of the RAS or RAF oncogenes, and PI3K/AKT is activated by loss of the tumor suppressor PTEN. In prostate cancer, PTEN deletions are common, but, unlike other carcinomas, RAS and RAF mutations are rare. We have previously shown that over-expression of "oncogenic" ETS transcription factors, which occurs in about one-half of prostate tumors due to chromosome rearrangement, can bypass the need for RAS/ERK signaling in the activation of a cell migration gene expression program. In this study we test the role of RAS/ERK and PI3K/AKT signaling in the function of oncogenic ETS proteins. RESULTS We find that oncogenic ETS expression negatively correlates with RAS and RAF mutations in prostate tumors. Furthermore, the oncogenic ETS transcription factors only increased cell migration in the absence of RAS/ERK activation. In contrast to RAS/ERK, it has been reported that oncogenic ETS expression positively correlates with PI3K/AKT activation. We identified a mechanistic explanation for this finding by showing that oncogenic ETS proteins required AKT signaling to activate a cell migration gene expression program through ETS/AP-1 binding sequences. Levels of pAKT correlated with the ability of oncogenic ETS proteins to increase cell migration, but this process did not require mTORC1. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that oncogenic ETS rearrangements cause a cell migration gene expression program to switch from RAS/ERK control to PI3K/AKT control and provide a possible explanation for the high frequency of PTEN, but not RAS/RAF mutations in prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Peter C Hollenhorst
- Medical Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1001 E 3rd St, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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The brain microenvironment negatively regulates miRNA-768-3p to promote K-ras expression and lung cancer metastasis. Sci Rep 2014; 3:2392. [PMID: 23928793 PMCID: PMC3738968 DOI: 10.1038/srep02392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain microenvironment promotes metastasis through mechanisms that remain elusive. Co-culture of lung cancer cells with astrocytes - the most abundant cell type within the metastatic brain niche – lead to downregulation of miRNA-768-3p which drives K-ras expression and key signaling pathways, enhances cell viability and promotes chemotherapeutic resistance. Vector-based forced expression of miRNA-768-3p complementary sequence or a chemically-engineered miRNA-768-3p inhibitor recapitulated the astrocyte effect to increase tumor cell viability. The miRNA-768-3p inhibitor targeted the K-ras 3′-UTR as demonstrated by increased luminescence from a luciferase reporter and strikingly increased the K-ras protein and the downstream effectors ERK1/2 and B-Raf. miRNA-768-3p was reduced in patient brain metastases compared to normal brain tissue and was lower in patient tissue from brain metastases compared to same-patient primary tumour tissue. The brain microenvironment negatively regulates miRNA-768-3p to enhance K-ras and promote metastasis. We propose that therapeutic replacement of the metastasis suppressor miRNA-768-3p holds clinical promise.
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60
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MicroRNA-30c serves as an independent biochemical recurrence predictor and potential tumor suppressor for prostate cancer. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:2779-88. [PMID: 24452717 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3132-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNA-30c (miR-30c) acts as a tumor suppressor or a tumor promoter in various human malignancies. However, the involvement of miR-30c in prostate cancer (PCa) is still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular function and the clinical significance of miR-30c in PCa. Expression levels of miR-30c in PCa tissues and cells were detected by quantitative real-time-PCR (qRT-PCR). Additionally, the associations of miR-30c expression with clinicopathological features and prognosis in PCa patients were analyzed. The potential role of miR-30c in tumorigenesis of PCa cells was further evaluated by in vitro cell assays. MiR-30c was significantly down-regulated in PCa tissues and cells compared with the corresponding controls (P<0.05). In addition, the downregulation of miR-30c in PCa tissues was significantly associated with higher Gleason score (P=0.009), advanced pathological stage (P=0.016) and biochemical recurrence (P=0.034). Moreover, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that the reduced expression of miR-30c was correlated with shorter biochemical recurrence-free survival (P=0.023). The multivariate analysis also identified miR-30c as an independent prognostic predictor for biochemical recurrence-free survival in patients with PCa. Furthermore, the enforced expression of miR-30c suppressed proliferation, migration and invasion of PCa cells in vitro. Our data indicated the involvement of miR-30c in PCa progression and suggested its potential role as an independent predictor of biochemical recurrence in PCa. On cellular level, miR-30c may function as a tumor suppressor for PCa cells by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, migration and invasion.
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Barbieri CE, Tomlins SA. The prostate cancer genome: Perspectives and potential. Urol Oncol 2014; 32:53.e15-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2013.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Sumita K, Yoshino H, Sasaki M, Majd N, Kahoud ER, Takahashi H, Takeuchi K, Kuroda T, Lee S, Charest PG, Takeda K, Asara JM, Firtel RA, Anastasiou D, Sasaki AT. Degradation of activated K-Ras orthologue via K-Ras-specific lysine residues is required for cytokinesis. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:3950-9. [PMID: 24338482 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.531178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian cells encode three closely related Ras proteins, H-Ras, N-Ras, and K-Ras. Oncogenic K-Ras mutations frequently occur in human cancers, which lead to dysregulated cell proliferation and genomic instability. However, mechanistic role of the Ras isoform regulation have remained largely unknown. Furthermore, the dynamics and function of negative regulation of GTP-loaded K-Ras have not been fully investigated. Here, we demonstrate RasG, the Dictyostelium orthologue of K-Ras, is targeted for degradation by polyubiquitination. Both ubiquitination and degradation of RasG were strictly associated with RasG activity. High resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis indicated that RasG ubiquitination occurs at C-terminal lysines equivalent to lysines found in human K-Ras but not in H-Ras and N-Ras homologues. Substitution of these lysine residues with arginines (4KR-RasG) diminished RasG ubiquitination and increased RasG protein stability. Cells expressing 4KR-RasG failed to undergo proper cytokinesis and resulted in multinucleated cells. Ectopically expressed human K-Ras undergoes polyubiquitin-mediated degradation in Dictyostelium, whereas human H-Ras and a Dictyostelium H-Ras homologue (RasC) are refractory to ubiquitination. Our results indicate the existence of GTP-loaded K-Ras orthologue-specific degradation system in Dictyostelium, and further identification of the responsible E3-ligase may provide a novel therapeutic approach against K-Ras-mutated cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutaka Sumita
- From the Division of Hematology Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati Cancer Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Cincinnati Neuroscience Institute, Brain Tumor Center University of Cincinnati, College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267
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Global analysis of the differentially expressed miRNAs of prostate cancer in Chinese patients. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:757. [PMID: 24191917 PMCID: PMC4008360 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Our recent study showed the global physiological function of the differentially expressed genes of prostate cancer in Chinese patients was different from that of other non-Chinese populations. microRNA are estimated to regulate the expression of greater than 60% of all protein-coding genes. To further investigate the global association between the transcript abundance of miRNAs and their target mRNAs in Chinese patients, we used microRNA microarray approach combined with bioinformatics and clinical-pathological assay to investigate the miRNA profile and evaluate the potential of miRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic markers in Chinese patients. Results A total of 28 miRNAs (fold change ≥1.5; P ≤ 0.05) were differentially expressed between tumor tissue and adjacent benign tissue of 4 prostate cancer patients.10 top Differentially expressed miRNAs were validated by qRT-PCR using all 20 tissue pairs. Compared to the miRNA profile of non-Chinese populations, the current study showed that miR-23b, miR-220, miR-221, miR-222, and miR-205 maybe common critical therapeutic targets in different populations. The integrated analysis for mRNA microarray and miRNA microarray showed the effects of specifically inhibiting and/or enhancing the function of miRNAs on the gene transcription level. The current studies also identified 15 specific expressed miRNAs in Chinese patients. The clinical feature statistics revealed that miR-374b and miR-19a have significant correlations with clinical-pathological features in Chinese patients. Conclusions Our findings showed Chinese prostate cancer patients have a common and specific miRNA expression profile compared with non-Chinese populations. The miR-374b is down-regulated in prostate cancer tissue, and it can be identified as an independent predictor of biochemical recurrence-free survival.
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ETV4 promotes metastasis in response to activation of PI3-kinase and Ras signaling in a mouse model of advanced prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:E3506-15. [PMID: 23918374 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1303558110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Combinatorial activation of PI3-kinase and RAS signaling occurs frequently in advanced prostate cancer and is associated with adverse patient outcome. We now report that the oncogenic Ets variant 4 (Etv4) promotes prostate cancer metastasis in response to coactivation of PI3-kinase and Ras signaling pathways in a genetically engineered mouse model of highly penetrant, metastatic prostate cancer. Using an inducible Cre driver to simultaneously inactivate Pten while activating oncogenic Kras and a fluorescent reporter allele in the prostate epithelium, we performed lineage tracing in vivo to define the temporal and spatial occurrence of prostate tumors, disseminated tumor cells, and metastases. These analyses revealed that though disseminated tumors cells arise early following the initial occurrence of prostate tumors, there is a significant temporal lag in metastasis, which is temporally coincident with the up-regulation of Etv4 expression in primary tumors. Functional studies showed that knockdown of Etv4 in a metastatic cell line derived from the mouse model abrogates the metastatic phenotype but does not affect tumor growth. Notably, expression and activation of ETV4, but not other oncogenic ETS genes, is correlated with activation of both PI3-kinase and Ras signaling in human prostate tumors and metastases. Our findings indicate that ETV4 promotes metastasis in prostate tumors that have activation of PI3-kinase and Ras signaling, and therefore, ETV4 represents a potential target of therapeutic intervention for metastatic prostate cancer.
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Malhotra A, Shibata Y, Hall IM, Dutta A. Chromosomal structural variations during progression of a prostate epithelial cell line to a malignant metastatic state inactivate the NF2, NIPSNAP1, UGT2B17, and LPIN2 genes. Cancer Biol Ther 2013; 14:840-52. [PMID: 23792589 PMCID: PMC3909553 DOI: 10.4161/cbt.25329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second highest cause of male cancer deaths in the United States. A significant number of tumors advance to a highly invasive and metastatic stage, which is typically resistant to traditional cancer therapeutics. In order to identify chromosomal structural variants that may contribute to prostate cancer progression we sequenced the genomes of a HPV-18 immortalized nonmalignant human prostate epithelial cell line, RWPE1, and compared it to its malignant, metastatic derivative, WPE1-NB26. There were a total of 34 large (> 1 Mbp) and 38 small copy number variants (<100 kbp) in WPE1-NB26 that were not present in the precursor cell line. We also identified and validated 46 structural variants present in the two cell lines, of which 23 were unique to WPE1-NB26. Structural variants unique to the malignant cell line inactivated: (1) the neurofibromin2 (NF2) gene, a known tumor suppressor; (2) its neighboring gene NIPSNAP1, another putative tumor suppressor that inhibits TRPV6, an anti-apoptotic oncogene implicated in prostate cancer progression; (3) UGT2B17, a gene that inactivates dihydrotestosterone, a known activator of prostate cancer progression; and (4) LPIN2, a phosphatidic acid phosphatase and a co-factor of PGC1a that is important for lipid metabolism and for suppressing autoinflammation. Our results illustrate the value of comparing the genomes of defined related pairs of cell lines to discover chromosomal structural variants that may contribute to cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Malhotra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics; University of Virginia School of Medicine; Charlottesville, VA USA
| | - Yoshiyuki Shibata
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics; University of Virginia School of Medicine; Charlottesville, VA USA
| | - Ira M Hall
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics; University of Virginia School of Medicine; Charlottesville, VA USA
| | - Anindya Dutta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics; University of Virginia School of Medicine; Charlottesville, VA USA
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Irshad S, Abate-Shen C. Modeling prostate cancer in mice: something old, something new, something premalignant, something metastatic. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2013; 32:109-22. [PMID: 23114843 PMCID: PMC3584242 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-012-9409-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
More than 15 years ago, the first generation of genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models of prostate cancer was introduced. These transgenic models utilized prostate-specific promoters to express SV40 oncogenes specifically in prostate epithelium. Since the description of these initial models, there have been a plethora of GEM models of prostate cancer representing various perturbations of oncogenes or tumor suppressors, either alone or in combination. This review describes these GEM models, focusing on their relevance for human prostate cancer and highlighting their strengths and limitations, as well as opportunities for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazia Irshad
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Departments of Urology and Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
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Abstract
Systematic studies of the cancer genome have exploded in recent years. These studies have revealed scores of new cancer genes, including many in processes not previously known to be causal targets in cancer. The genes affect cell signaling, chromatin, and epigenomic regulation; RNA splicing; protein homeostasis; metabolism; and lineage maturation. Still, cancer genomics is in its infancy. Much work remains to complete the mutational catalog in primary tumors and across the natural history of cancer, to connect recurrent genomic alterations to altered pathways and acquired cellular vulnerabilities, and to use this information to guide the development and application of therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levi A Garraway
- Department of Medical Oncology and Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Barbieri CE, Bangma CH, Bjartell A, Catto JWF, Culig Z, Grönberg H, Luo J, Visakorpi T, Rubin MA. The mutational landscape of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2013; 64:567-76. [PMID: 23759327 DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2013.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Prostate cancer (PCa) is a clinically heterogeneous disease with marked variability in patient outcomes. Molecular characterization has revealed striking mutational heterogeneity that may underlie the variable clinical course of the disease. OBJECTIVE In this review, we discuss the common genomic alterations that form the molecular basis of PCa, their functional significance, and the potential to translate this knowledge into patient care. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We reviewed the relevant literature, with a particular focus on recent studies on somatic alterations in PCa. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Advances in sequencing technology have resulted in an explosion of data regarding the mutational events underlying the development and progression of PCa. Heterogeneity is the norm; few abnormalities in specific genes are highly recurrent, but alterations in certain signaling pathways do predominate. These alterations include those in pathways known to affect tumorigenesis in a wide spectrum of tissues, such as the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/phosphatase and tensin homolog/Akt pathway, cell cycle regulation, and chromatin regulation. Alterations more specific to PCa are also observed, particularly gene fusions of ETS transcription factors and alterations in androgen signaling. Mounting data suggest that PCa can be subdivided based on a molecular profile of genetic alterations. CONCLUSIONS Major advances have been made in cataloging the genomic alterations in PCa and understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease. These findings raise the possibility that PCa could soon transition from being a poorly understood, heterogeneous disease with a variable clinical course to being a collection of homogenous subtypes identifiable by molecular criteria, associated with distinct risk profiles, and perhaps amenable to specific management strategies or targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher E Barbieri
- Department of Urology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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69
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Hessels D, Schalken JA. Recurrent Gene Fusions in Prostate Cancer: Their Clinical Implications and Uses. Curr Urol Rep 2013; 14:214-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s11934-013-0321-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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70
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Roychowdhury S, Chinnaiyan AM. Advancing precision medicine for prostate cancer through genomics. J Clin Oncol 2013; 31:1866-73. [PMID: 23589550 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2012.45.3662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men and the second leading cause of cancer death in men in the United States. The recent surge of high-throughput sequencing of cancer genomes has supported an expanding molecular classification of prostate cancer. Translation of these basic science studies into clinically valuable biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis and biomarkers that are predictive for therapy is critical to the development of precision medicine in prostate cancer. We review potential applications aimed at improving screening specificity in prostate cancer and differentiating aggressive versus indolent prostate cancers. Furthermore, we review predictive biomarker candidates involving ETS gene rearrangements, PTEN inactivation, and androgen receptor signaling. These and other putative biomarkers may signify aberrant oncogene pathway activation and provide a rationale for matching patients with molecularly targeted therapies in clinical trials. Lastly, we advocate innovations for clinical trial design to incorporate tumor biopsy and molecular characterization to develop biomarkers and understand mechanisms of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameek Roychowdhury
- University of Michigan Medical School, 1400 E. Medical Center Dr, 5316 CCGC, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5940, USA
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71
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Mao RF, Rubio V, Chen H, Bai L, Mansour OC, Shi ZZ. OLA1 protects cells in heat shock by stabilizing HSP70. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4:e491. [PMID: 23412384 PMCID: PMC3734832 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2013.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The heat-shock response is an evolutionarily conserved cellular defense mechanism against environmental stresses, characterized by the rapid synthesis of heat-shock proteins (HSPs). HSP70, a highly inducible molecular chaperone, assists in refolding or clearance of damaged proteins, thereby having a central role in maintaining intracellular homeostasis and thermotolerance. To date, induction of HSP70 expression has been described extensively at the transcriptional level. However, post-translational regulation of HSP70, such as protein stability, is only partially understood. In this study, we investigated the role of OLA1 (Obg-like ATPase 1), a previously uncharacterized cytosolic ATPase, in regulating the turnover of HSP70. Downregulation of OLA1 in mammalian cells by either RNAi or targeted gene disruption results in reduced steady-state levels of HSP70, impaired HSP70 induction by heat, and functionally, increased cellular sensitivity to heat shock. Conversely, overexpression of OLA1 correlates with elevated HSP70 protein levels and improved thermal resistance. Protein–protein interaction assays demonstrated that binding of OLA1 to the HSP70 carboxyl terminus variable domain hinders the recruitment of CHIP (C-terminus of Hsp70-binding protein), an E3 ubiquitin ligase for HSP70, and thus prevents HSP70 from the CHIP-mediated ubiquitination. These findings suggest a novel molecular mechanism by which OLA1 stabilizes HSP70, leading to upregulation of HSP70 as well as increased survival during heat shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- R-F Mao
- Department of Translational Imaging, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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72
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PTEN in Prostate Cancer. Prostate Cancer 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6828-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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73
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Brenner JC, Chinnaiyan AM, Tomlins SA. ETS Fusion Genes in Prostate Cancer. Prostate Cancer 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6828-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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74
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Cai H, Memarzadeh S, Stoyanova T, Beharry Z, Kraft AS, Witte ON. Collaboration of Kras and androgen receptor signaling stimulates EZH2 expression and tumor-propagating cells in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2012; 72:4672-81. [PMID: 22805308 PMCID: PMC3445707 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-0228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Elevation of the chromatin repression factor enhancer of zeste homolog (EZH2) is associated with progression and poor prognosis in several human cancers including prostate cancer. However, the mechanisms driving EZH2 expression are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the functional synergy in prostate cancers in mice resulting from activation of the androgen receptor, Kras, and Akt, which drives three of the most frequently activated oncogenic signaling pathways in prostate cancer. Although, any two of these three events were sufficient to promote the formation and progression of prostate cancer, only the synergy of androgen receptor and Kras signaling could elevate EZH2 expression and expand prostate cancer progenitor cells in vivo. Our findings have revealed a genetic mechanism resulting in enhanced EZH2 expression during the progression of aggressive prostate cancer, with important implications for understanding how to target advanced disease where cancer progenitor cells may be critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houjian Cai
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA.
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75
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Tradonsky A, Rubin T, Beck R, Ring B, Seitz R, Mair S. A search for reliable molecular markers of prognosis in prostate cancer: a study of 240 cases. Am J Clin Pathol 2012; 137:918-30. [PMID: 22586051 DOI: 10.1309/ajcpf3qwig8fwxih] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Most prostate cancers are treated, although more than 80% remain clinically insignificant and fewer than 3% are fatal. This retrospective study of 240 radical prostatectomy cases with comprehensive follow-up was a search for reliable markers of prostate cancer prognosis evaluable on biopsy specimens to enable minimization of unnecessary treatment, morbidity, and costs. Representative cancer and benign tissue from each prostatectomy specimen was made into tissue microarrays and stained with antibodies targeting 20 gene sequences. Traditional clinical and pathologic prognosticators and the 20 antibody stains were correlated with patient outcomes. By univariable analysis 4 of 20 antibodies (STMN1/stathmin 1, CYP4Z1/cytochrome p450-4z1, CDH1/E-cadherin, and Hey2), Gleason score, perineural invasion, and apical involvement were statistically significant outcome predictors for biopsy tissue. By multivariate analysis, Gleason score, Hey2, and CYP4Z1 were independently predictive. STMN1 and CDH1 were not independent of Gleason score but remain useful because marker interpretation is objective and Gleason scores often differ for biopsy and prostatectomy specimens.
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76
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Mulholland DJ, Kobayashi N, Ruscetti M, Zhi A, Tran LM, Huang J, Gleave M, Wu H. Pten loss and RAS/MAPK activation cooperate to promote EMT and metastasis initiated from prostate cancer stem/progenitor cells. Cancer Res 2012; 72:1878-89. [PMID: 22350410 PMCID: PMC3319847 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-3132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 384] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
PTEN loss or PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation correlates with human prostate cancer progression and metastasis. However, in preclinical murine models, deletion of Pten alone fails to mimic the significant metastatic burden that frequently accompanies the end stage of human disease. To identify additional pathway alterations that cooperate with PTEN loss in prostate cancer progression, we surveyed human prostate cancer tissue microarrays and found that the RAS/MAPK pathway is significantly elevated in both primary and metastatic lesions. In an attempt to model this event, we crossed conditional activatable K-ras(G12D/WT) mice with the prostate conditional Pten deletion model. Although RAS activation alone cannot initiate prostate cancer development, it significantly accelerated progression caused by PTEN loss, accompanied by epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and macrometastasis with 100% penetrance. A novel stem/progenitor subpopulation with mesenchymal characteristics was isolated from the compound mutant prostates, which was highly metastatic upon orthotopic transplantation. Importantly, inhibition of RAS/MAPK signaling by PD325901, a mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-extracellular signal-regulated (ER) kinase (MEK) inhibitor, significantly reduced the metastatic progression initiated from transplanted stem/progenitor cells. Collectively, our findings indicate that activation of RAS/MAPK signaling serves as a potentiating second hit to alteration of the PTEN/PI3K/AKT axis, and cotargeting both the pathways is highly effective in preventing the development of metastatic prostate cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Mulholland
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
| | - Naoko Kobayashi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
| | - Marcus Ruscetti
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
| | - Allen Zhi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
| | - Linh M Tran
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
| | - Jiaoti Huang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles
| | - Martin Gleave
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre and University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC
| | - Hong Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Institute for Molecular Medicine
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles
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77
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Abstract
Prostate cancer is a common malignancy in men, with a markedly variable clinical course. Somatic alterations in DNA drive the growth of prostate cancers and may underlie the behavior of aggressive versus indolent tumors. The accelerating application of genomic technologies over the last two decades has identified mutations that drive prostate cancer formation, progression, and therapeutic resistance. Here, we discuss exemplary somatic mutations in prostate cancer, and highlight mutated cellular pathways with biological and possible therapeutic importance. Examples include mutated genes involved in androgen signaling, cell cycle regulation, signal transduction, and development. Some genetic alterations may also predict the clinical course of disease or response to therapy, although the molecular heterogeneity of prostate tumors poses challenges to genomic biomarker identification. The widespread application of massively parallel sequencing technology to the analysis of prostate cancer genomes should continue to advance both discovery-oriented and diagnostic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvan C. Baca
- Harvard Medical School, Boston,MA, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute,Boston, MA, USA
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge,MA, USA
| | - Levi A. Garraway
- Harvard Medical School, Boston,MA, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute,Boston, MA, USA
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge,MA, USA
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute,Boston, MA, USA
- *Correspondence: Levi A. Garraway, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA. e-mail:
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78
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Cao Q, Mani RS, Ateeq B, Dhanasekaren SM, Asangani IA, Prensner JR, Kim JH, Brenner JC, Jing X, Cao X, Wang R, Li Y, Dahiya A, Wang L, Pandhi M, Lonigro RJ, Wu YM, Tomlins SA, Palanisamy N, Qin Z, Yu J, Maher CA, Varambally S, Chinnaiyan AM. Coordinated regulation of polycomb group complexes through microRNAs in cancer. Cancer Cell 2011; 20:187-99. [PMID: 21840484 PMCID: PMC3157014 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Revised: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Polycomb Repressive Complexes (PRC1 and PRC2)-mediated epigenetic regulation is critical for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Members of Polycomb Group (PcG) proteins including EZH2, a PRC2 component, are upregulated in various cancer types, implicating their role in tumorigenesis. Here, we have identified several microRNAs (miRNAs) that are repressed by EZH2. These miRNAs, in turn, regulate the expression of PRC1 proteins BMI1 and RING2. We found that ectopic overexpression of EZH2-regulated miRNAs attenuated cancer cell growth and invasiveness, and abrogated cancer stem cell properties. Importantly, expression analysis revealed an inverse correlation between miRNA and PRC protein levels in cell culture and prostate cancer tissues. Taken together, our data have uncovered a coordinate regulation of PRC1 and PRC2 activities that is mediated by miRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Cao
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Ram-Shankar Mani
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Bushra Ateeq
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Saravana M. Dhanasekaren
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Irfan A. Asangani
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - John R. Prensner
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Jung H. Kim
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - J. Chad Brenner
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Xiaojun Jing
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Xuhong Cao
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Rui Wang
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Yong Li
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Arun Dahiya
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Lei Wang
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Mithil Pandhi
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Robert J. Lonigro
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Yi-Mi Wu
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Scott A. Tomlins
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Nallasivam Palanisamy
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Zhaohui Qin
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Center for Comprehensive Informatics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Jindan Yu
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Christopher A. Maher
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Center for Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Sooryanarayana Varambally
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Arul M. Chinnaiyan
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
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KRAS Oncogene Rearrangements and Gene Fusions: Unexpected Rare Encounters in Late-Stage Prostate Cancers: Table 1. Cancer Discov 2011; 1:12-3. [DOI: 10.1158/2159-8274.cd-11-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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