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A Role for the PKC Signaling System in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders: Involvement of a Functional Imbalance? Mol Neurobiol 2011; 44:407-19. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-011-8210-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Myricitrin, a nitric oxide and protein kinase C inhibitor, exerts antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:1636-44. [PMID: 21689712 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 05/30/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Myricitrin is a nitric oxide (NO) and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor that has central nervous system activity, including anxiolytic-like action. Nitric oxide inhibitors blocked the behavioral effects of apomorphine, suggesting an antipsychotic-like effect. Furthermore, PKC inhibition reduced psychotic symptoms in acute mania patients and blocked amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion, suggesting a potential antipsychotic-like effect. The present study evaluated the effects of myricitrin in animal models that assess antipsychotic-like effects (apomorphine-induced stereotypy and climbing and the paw test) and extrapyramidal side effects (catalepsy test and paw test). Olanzapine was used as a positive control. 7-Nitroindazole (7-NI), a NOS inhibitor, and l-arginine, a NO precursor, were used to evaluate nitrergic modulation, and tamoxifen was used to test the effect of PKC inhibition. In mice, myricitrin dose-dependently and olanzapine blocked the stereotypy and climbing induced by apomorphine at doses that did not induce catalepsy. 7-Nitroindazole also blocked apomorphine-induced stereotypy and climbing, which were reversed by l-arginine pretreatment. l-arginine only attenuated the effects of myricitrin on apomorphine's effects. Tamoxifen also blocked apomorphine-induced stereotypy and climbing. In the paw test in rats, myricitrin and olanzapine increased hindlimb retraction time at doses that did not affect forelimb reaction time, whereas haloperidol affected both parameters at the same dose. Myricitrin did not induce catalepsy in the bar test. Tamoxifen did not affect hindlimb retraction time or forelimb retraction time, whereas 7-NI significantly increased hindlimb reaction time. Thus, myricitrin exhibited an antipsychotic-like profile at doses that did not induce catalepsy, and this effect may be related to nitrergic action.
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El-Mallakh RS, Elmaadawi AZ, Gao Y, Lohano K, Roberts RJ. Current and emerging therapies for the management of bipolar disorders. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2011; 3:189-97. [PMID: 23861648 PMCID: PMC3663605 DOI: 10.4137/jcnsd.s4441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is a complex condition to treat because agents that may be effective for a specific phase may not be effective for other phases, or may even worsen the overall course of the illness. Over the last decade there has been an increase in research activity in the treatment of bipolar illness. There are now several agents that are well established for the treatment of acute mania (lithium, divalproex, carbamazepine, nearly all antipsychotics), acute bipolar depression (lamotrigine, quetiapine, olanzapine/fluoxetine combination), and relapse prevention (lithium, lamotrigine, divalproex, most second generation antipsychotics). There are also novel treatments that are being studied for all three phases. These include eslicarbazepine, cariprazine, MEM-1003, memantine, tamoxifen and pentazocine for acute mania; pramipexole, modafinil, armodafinil, divalproex, lurasidone, agomelatine, cariprazine, lisedexamfetamine, riluzole, RG-2417, bifeprunox, ropinirole, GSK1014802, and magnetic stimulation for bipolar depression; and asenapine, lurasidone, and cariprazine for relapse prevention. Additionally, there are accumulating data that antidepressants, particularly serotoninergic ones, are not particularly effective in acute bipolar depression and may worsen the course of the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rif S. El-Mallakh
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Ahmed Z. Elmaadawi
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Yonglin Gao
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Kavita Lohano
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - R. Jeannie Roberts
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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Pereira M, Martynhak BJ, Baretta IP, Correia D, Siba IP, Andreatini R. Antimanic-like effect of tamoxifen is not reproduced by acute or chronic administration of medroxyprogesterone or clomiphene. Neurosci Lett 2011; 500:95-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Magnesium sulfate and sodium valproate block methylphenidate-induced hyperlocomotion, an animal model of mania. Pharmacol Rep 2011; 63:64-70. [PMID: 21441612 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(11)70399-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Revised: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is used to treat and prevent eclamptic seizures, and several anticonvulsant drugs (e.g., sodium valproate) are clinically effective antimanic drugs. Psychostimulant-induced hyperlocomotion has been proposed as an animal model for the study of antimanic drugs. The present study evaluated the effects of MgSO4 and sodium valproate (as a positive control) on hyperlocomotion induced by methylphenidate in mice. Acute MgSO4 (300-400 mg/kg), but not sodium valproate (100-300 mg/kg), prevented the increase in locomotor activity induced by methylphenidate (5.0 mg/kg). In contrast, repeated treatment (14 days) with valproate (300 mg/kg), but not MgSO4 (400 mg/kg), blocked methylphenidate-induced hyperlocomotion. Thus, acute MgSO4 exerted antimanic-like effects in this animal model.
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Yi H, Kim SH, Park HG, Yu HS, Kim YS. The effect of systemic injection of cyclosporin A on the phosphorylation of the PKC substrates MARCKS and GAP43 in the rat hippocampus. Neurosci Lett 2011; 497:17-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Tamoxifen effects on respiratory chain complexes and creatine kinase activities in an animal model of mania. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 98:304-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2010] [Revised: 12/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Machado-Vieira R, Zarate CA. Proof of concept trials in bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: a translational perspective in the search for improved treatments. Depress Anxiety 2011; 28:267-81. [PMID: 21456037 PMCID: PMC3071576 DOI: 10.1002/da.20800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of the neurobiology of mood disorders, informed by preclinical research and bi-directionally translated to clinical research, is critical for the future development of new and effective treatments. Recently, diverse new targets/compounds have been specifically tested in preclinical models and in proof-of-concept studies, with potential relevance as treatments for mood disorders. Most of the evidence comes from case reports, case series, or controlled proof-of-concept studies, some with small sample sizes. These include (1) the opioid neuropeptide system, (2) the purinergic system, (3) the glutamatergic system, (4) the tachykinin neuropeptide system, (5) the cholinergic system (muscarinic system), and (6) intracellular signaling pathways. These targets may be of substantial interest in defining future directions in drug development, as well as in developing the next generation of therapeutic agents for the treatment of mood disorders. Overall, further study of these and similar drugs may lead to a better understanding of relevant and clinically useful drug targets in the treatment of these devastating illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, LIM-27, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, USP, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A. Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, CRC Unit 7 Southeast, Room 7-3445, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
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Armani F, Andersen ML, Andreatini R, Frussa-Filho R, Tufik S, Galduróz JCF. Successful combined therapy with tamoxifen and lithium in a paradoxical sleep deprivation-induced mania model. CNS Neurosci Ther 2011; 18:119-25. [PMID: 22070228 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00224.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have suggested that manic states and sleep deprivation could contribute to the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD) through protein kinase C (PKC) signaling abnormalities. Moreover, adjunctive therapy has become a standard strategy in the management of BD patients who respond poorly to current pharmacological treatments. AIM Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the possible involvement of PKC inhibition by tamoxifen both separately or in combination with lithium, in paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD)-induced hyperactivity, one facet of mania-like behavior. MATERIALS & METHODS Adult male C57BL/6J mice were randomly distributed (n = 7/group) in 24-h PSD or control groups and injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with vehicle, lithium (50, 100, or 150 mg/kg) or tamoxifen (0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg - experiment 1). In a second experiment, mice were injected i.p. with vehicle or a combination of subeffective doses of lithium and tamoxifen. Animals were subjected to a protocol based on repetitive PSD conditions, followed by assessment of locomotion activity in the open-field task. RESULTS PSD significantly increased locomotor activity in both experiments. These behavioral changes were prevented by a treatment with lithium or tamoxifen, or a combined treatment with both lithium and tamoxifen. DISCUSSION Therefore, our findings suggest that lithium and tamoxifen exert reversal effects against PSD-induced hyperactivity in mice. CONCLUSION Furthermore, tamoxifen as an adjunct to lithium therapy provides support for an alternative treatment of individuals who either do not respond adequately or cannot tolerate the adverse effects associated with therapeutic doses of lithium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Armani
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Machado-Vieira R, Salvadore G, DiazGranados N, Ibrahim L, Latov D, Wheeler-Castillo C, Baumann J, Henter ID, Zarate CA. New therapeutic targets for mood disorders. ScientificWorldJournal 2010; 10:713-26. [PMID: 20419280 PMCID: PMC3035047 DOI: 10.1100/tsw.2010.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder (BPD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are often insufficient for many patients. Here we describe a number of targets/compounds that clinical and preclinical studies suggest could result in putative novel treatments for mood disorders. These include: (1) glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) and protein kinase C (PKC), (2) the purinergic system, (3) histone deacetylases (HDACs), (4) the melatonergic system, (5) the tachykinin neuropeptides system, (6) the glutamatergic system, and (7) oxidative stress and bioenergetics. The paper reviews data on new compounds that have shown antimanic or antidepressant effects in subjects with mood disorders, or similar effects in preclinical animal models. Overall, an improved understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of mood disorders is critical in order to develop targeted treatments that are more effective, act more rapidly, and are better tolerated than currently available therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Kim SH, Kim MK, Yu HS, Kim HS, Park IS, Park HG, Kang UG, Kim YS. Electroconvulsive seizure increases phosphorylation of PKC substrates, including GAP-43, MARCKS, and neurogranin, in rat brain. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010; 34:115-21. [PMID: 19837121 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Revised: 10/08/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Protein kinase C (PKC) has been suggested as a molecular target related to the pathogenetic and therapeutic mechanisms of mood disorders in which electroconvulsive seizure (ECS) is effective. However, the reports concerning the effects of ECS on PKC are anecdotal and need further clarification. In this study, we examined the effects of ECS treatment on the phosphorylation of PKC substrates, including GAP-43, MARCKS, and neurogranin. Immunoblot using anti-p-PKC substrate antibodies revealed that a single ECS treatment induced temporal changes in the phosphorylation level of PKC substrates in rat brain, reflecting the effects on PKC activity. Phosphorylation of GAP-43 and MARCKS, representative PKC substrates related to synaptic remodeling, increased from 5 to 30 min, after a transient decrease at 0 min immediately after ECS, and returned to basal levels at 60 min in rat frontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. Phosphorylation of neurogranin, another PKC substrate, showed a similar pattern of temporal changes in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that p-GAP-43 and p-MARCKS were densely stained throughout the neuronal cells of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, and the Purkinje cells of cerebellum, after ECS treatment. Brief and transient activation of PKC may be translated into long-term biochemical changes, resulting in synaptic plasticity. Taken together, the acute effects of ECS on PKC activity, which could be an underpinning of long-term biochemical changes induced by ECS, may contribute to understand the molecular mechanism of ECS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Hyun Kim
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science and Institute of Human Behavioral Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Flaisher-Grinberg S, Einat H. Strain-specific battery of tests for domains of mania: effects of valproate, lithium and imipramine. Front Psychiatry 2010; 1:10. [PMID: 21423422 PMCID: PMC3059633 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2010.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The lack of efficient animal models for bipolar disorder (BPD), especially for the manic pole, is a major factor hindering the research of its pathophysiology and the development of improved drug treatments. The present study was designed to identify an appropriate mouse strain for modeling some behavioral domains of mania and to evaluate the effects of drugs using this strain. The study compared the behavior of four strains: Black Swiss, C57Bl/6, CBA/J and A/J mice in a battery of tests that included spontaneous activity; sweet solution preference; light/dark box; resident-intruder; forced-swim and amphetamine-induced hyperactivity. Based on the 'manic-like' behavior demonstrated by the Black Swiss strain, the study evaluated the effects of the mood stabilizers valproate and lithium and of the antidepressant imipramine in the same tests using this strain. Results indicated that lithium and valproate attenuate the 'manic-like' behavior of Black Swiss mice whereas imipramine had no effects. These findings suggest that Black Swiss mice might be a good choice for modeling several domains of mania and distinguishing the effects of drugs on these specific domains. However, the relevance of the behavioral phenotype of Black Swiss mice to the biology of BPD is unknown at this time and future studies will investigate molecular differences between Black Swiss mice and other strains and asess the interaction between strain and mood stabilizing treatment.
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63
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Machado-Vieira R, Manji HK, Zarate CA. Potential novel therapeutics for bipolar disorders. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2010; 5:303-29. [PMID: 25236562 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2010_51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Existing pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder (BPD), a severe recurrent mood disorder, are in general insufficient for many patients. Despite adequate doses and treatment duration, many individuals with this disease continue to experience mood episode relapses, residual symptoms, and functional impairment. This chapter reviews a number of targets/compounds that could result in putative novel treatments for BPD, including the dynorphin opioid neuropeptide system, the glutamatergic system, the purinergic system, the cholinergic system (muscarinic and nicotinic systems), the oxidative stress system, and the melatonergic system. The arachidonic acid cascade and intracellular signaling cascades (including glycogen synthase kinase 3 and protein kinase C) are also reviewed, as are agents that affect multiple targets (e.g., modafinil, Uridine RG2417). Further study of these and similar agents may improve our understanding of relevant drug targets and their clinical utility as potential therapeutics for this devastating disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Mark O. Hatfield CRC, Unit 7 SE, Rm. 7-3445, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,
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Zarate CA, Manji HK. Protein kinase C inhibitors: rationale for use and potential in the treatment of bipolar disorder. CNS Drugs 2009; 23:569-82. [PMID: 19552485 PMCID: PMC2802274 DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200923070-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is one of the most severely debilitating of all medical illnesses. For a large number of patients, outcomes are quite poor. The illness results in tremendous suffering for patients and their families and commonly impairs functioning and workplace productivity. Risks of increased morbidity and mortality, unfortunately, are frequent occurrences as well. Until recently, little has been known about the specific molecular and cellular underpinnings of bipolar disorder. Such knowledge is crucial for the prospect of developing specific targeted therapies that are more effective and that have a more rapid onset of action than currently available treatments. Exciting recent data suggest that regulation of certain signalling pathways may be involved in the aetiology of bipolar disorder and that these pathways may be profitably targeted to treat the disorder. In particular, mania is associated with overactive protein kinase C (PKC) intracellular signalling, and recent genome-wide association studies of bipolar disorder have implicated an enzyme that reduces the activation of PKC. Importantly, the current mainstays in the treatment of mania, lithium (a monovalent cation) and valproate (a small fatty acid) indirectly inhibit PKC. In addition, recent clinical studies with the relatively selective PKC inhibitor tamoxifen add support to the relevance of the PKC target in bipolar disorder. Overall, a growing body of work both on a preclinical and clinical level indicates that PKC signalling may play an important role in the pathophysiology and treatment of bipolar disorder. The development of CNS-penetrant PKC inhibitors may have considerable benefit for this devastating illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A. Zarate
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bethesda, Maryland, USA, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Husseini K. Manji
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bethesda, Maryland, USA, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Sabioni P, Baretta IP, Ninomiya EM, Gustafson L, Rodrigues ALS, Andreatini R. The antimanic-like effect of tamoxifen: Behavioural comparison with other PKC-inhibiting and antiestrogenic drugs. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32:1927-31. [PMID: 18930105 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2008] [Revised: 09/15/2008] [Accepted: 09/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinase C (PKC) is an important cellular target for mood stabilizers such as lithium and valproate, and tamoxifen, an antiestrogenic drug with PKC inhibition activity, also demonstrates an antimanic effect. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the antimanic effect of tamoxifen is mediated through the PKC inhibitory and/or the antiestrogenic action(s) of the drug. In the present study, the effects of tamoxifen, chelerythrine (a PKC inhibitor) and medroxyprogesterone (an antiestrogenic drug) were investigated in amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion of mice, an animal model of a manic state. Lithium carbonate (100 and 150 mg/kg, i.p.), tamoxifen (1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) and chelerythrine (1 microg/site, i.c.v.) completely blocked the amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion. However, while the intermediate medroxyprogesterone dose (3.0 mg/kg, i.p.) partially reduced the amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion, lower (1.0 mg/g) and higher (6.0 mg/kg) doses produced no effect. Our results indicate a major role for PKC inhibition in the antimanic-like effect of tamoxifen, although its antiestrogenic action may also contribute to this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Sabioni
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Centro Politécnico C.P. 19031, 81540-990 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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Marmol F. Lithium: bipolar disorder and neurodegenerative diseases Possible cellular mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of lithium. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32:1761-71. [PMID: 18789369 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2008] [Revised: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 08/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar illness is a major psychiatric disorder that affects 1-3% of the worldwide population. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that this illness is substantially heritable. However, the genetic characteristics remain unknown and a clear personality has not been identified for these patients. The clinical history of lithium began in mid-19th century when it was used to treat gout. In 1940, it was used as a substitute for sodium chloride in hypertensive patients. However, it was then banned, as it had major side effects. In 1949, Cade reported that lithium could be used as an effective treatment for bipolar disorder and subsequent studies confirmed this effect. Over the years, different authors have proposed many biochemical and biological effects of lithium in the brain. In this review, the main mechanisms of lithium action are summarised, including ion dysregulation; effects on neurotransmitter signalling; the interaction of lithium with the adenylyl cyclase system; inositol phosphate and protein kinase C signalling; and possible effects on arachidonic acid metabolism. However, none of the above mechanisms are definitive, and sometimes results have been contradictory. Recent advances in cellular and molecular biology have reported that lithium may represent an effective therapeutic strategy for treating neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease, due to its effects on neuroprotective proteins like Bcl-2 and its actions on regulators of apoptosis and cellular resilience, such as GSK-3. However, results are contradictory and more specific studies into the use of lithium in therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Marmol
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, Casanova, 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain.
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Abstract
Current pharmacotherapy for bipolar disorder is generally unsatisfactory for a large number of patients. Even with adequate modern bipolar pharmacological therapies, many afflicted individuals continue to have persistent mood episode relapses, residual symptoms, functional impairment, and psychosocial disability. Creating novel therapeutics for bipolar disorder is urgently needed. Promising drug targets and compounds for bipolar disorder worthy of further study include both systems and intracellular pathways and targets. Specifically, the purinergic system, the dynorphin opioid neuropeptide system, the cholinergic system (muscarinic and nicotinic systems), the melatonin and serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2C] system, the glutamatergic system, and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis have all been implicated. Intracellular pathways and targets worthy of further study include glycogen synthase kinase-3 protein, protein kinase C, and the arachidonic acid cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Zarate
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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A review of the preclinical and clinical evidence for protein kinase C as a target for drug development for bipolar disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2008; 10:510-9. [PMID: 18980735 PMCID: PMC2727597 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-008-0081-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we review preclinical studies investigating the role of protein kinase C (PKC) as it pertains to mania and effective antimanic agents. We then discuss clinical studies conducted with tamoxifen, a relatively selective PKC inhibitor, in acute bipolar mania. We conclude that PKC is an important target-arguably the first mechanistically distinct drug target for bipolar disorder. PKC holds considerable promise as a novel target for developing a new line of treatments for bipolar disorder.
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Mallinger AG, Thase ME, Haskett R, Buttenfield J, Luckenbaugh DA, Frank E, Kupfer DJ, Manji HK. Verapamil augmentation of lithium treatment improves outcome in mania unresponsive to lithium alone: preliminary findings and a discussion of therapeutic mechanisms. Bipolar Disord 2008; 10:856-66. [PMID: 19594501 PMCID: PMC3387673 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00636.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Attenuation of protein kinase C (PKC) is a mechanism common to both established (lithium, valproate) and some novel (tamoxifen) antimanic agents. Verapamil, although primarily known as a calcium channel blocker, also has PKC inhibitory activity. Verapamil has shown antimanic activity in some but not all studies. Therefore, we investigated verapamil, used alone or as an adjunctive treatment, in manic patients who did not respond to an initial adequate trial of lithium. METHODS Each study phase lasted three weeks. Subjects were treated openly with lithium in Phase 1 (n = 45). Those who failed to respond were randomly assigned to double-blind treatment in Phase 2 with either verapamil (n = 10) or continued-lithium (n = 8). Phase 2 nonresponders (n = 10) were assigned to combined verapamil/lithium in Phase 3. RESULTS Response in Phase 2 did not differ significantly between verapamil and continued-lithium. During Phase 3, response to combined treatment was significantly better than overall response to monotherapy in Phase 2 (Fisher's Exact test, p = 0.043). Mania ratings improved during combined treatment in Phase 3 by 88.2% (linear mixed model analysis, F = 4.34, p = 0.013), compared with 10.5% improvement during Phase 2. CONCLUSIONS In this preliminary investigation, verapamil monotherapy did not demonstrate antimanic efficacy. By contrast, the combination of verapamil plus lithium was highly efficacious. Our findings thus suggest that verapamil may have potential utility as an adjunct to lithium. This effect may be mediated by additive actions on PKC inhibition, which may be an important mechanism for antimanic agents in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan G Mallinger
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program, Building 10, Room 3N210, MSC 1290, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Michael E Thase
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Roger Haskett
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh
| | - Joan Buttenfield
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh
| | - David A Luckenbaugh
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD
| | - Ellen Frank
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh
| | - David J Kupfer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh
| | - Husseini K Manji
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD
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70
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Flaisher-Grinberg S, Overgaard S, Einat H. Attenuation of high sweet solution preference by mood stabilizers: a possible mouse model for the increased reward-seeking domain of mania. J Neurosci Methods 2008; 177:44-50. [PMID: 18930764 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2008] [Revised: 09/19/2008] [Accepted: 09/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The lack of appropriate animal models for bipolar disorder (BPD) is a major factor hindering the research of its pathophysiology and the development of new drug treatments. In line with the notion that BPD might represent a heterogeneous group of disorders, it was suggested that models for specific domains of BPD should be developed and then integrated. The present study tested sweet solution preference as a rodent model for increased reward seeking, a central component of manic behavior and a possible endophenotype of the disorder. The study identified that Black Swiss mice show high baseline saccharin preference compared with C57bl/6, CBA/J and A/J strains. Sweet solution preference in Black Swiss mice was therefore evaluated across a number of saccharin concentrations, with or without treatment with the mood stabilizers lithium and valproate and the antidepressant imipramine. Results indicated that the structurally dissimilar mood stabilizers lithium and valproate, but not the antidepressant imipramine, reduce sweet solution preference. However, different dosing schedules were needed for the two drugs to induce this effect. These findings support the face and the predictive validity of the sweet solution preference test as an animal model for the elevated reward-seeking domain of mania. As such, this test might be well integrated into a battery of models for different domains of BPD. Such a battery can be effectively utilized to screen new treatments, to distinguish between specific effects of different drugs, and to explore the mechanisms underlying BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg
- Dept. of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Duluth, USA
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71
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Szabo ST, Machado-Vieira R, Yuan P, Wang Y, Wei Y, Falke C, Cirelli C, Tononi G, Manji HK, Du J. Glutamate receptors as targets of protein kinase C in the pathophysiology and treatment of animal models of mania. Neuropharmacology 2008; 56:47-55. [PMID: 18789340 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2008] [Revised: 08/01/2008] [Accepted: 08/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Considerable biochemical evidence suggests that the protein kinase C (PKC) signaling cascade may be a convergent point for the actions of anti-manic agents, and that excessive PKC activation can disrupt prefrontal cortical regulation of thinking and behavior. To date, however, brain protein targets of PKC's anti-manic effects have not been fully identified. Here we showed that PKC activity was enhanced in the prefrontal cortex of animals treated with the psychostimulant amphetamine. Phosphorylation of MARCKS, a marker of PKC activity, was increased in the prefrontal cortex of animals treated with the psychostimulant amphetamine, as well as in sleep-deprived animals (another animal model of mania), but decreased in lithium-treated animals. The antidepressant imipramine, which shows pro-manic properties in patients with bipolar disorder (BPD), also enhanced phospho-MARCKS in prefrontal cortex in vivo. We further explored the functional targets of PKC in mania-associated behaviors. Neurogranin is a brain-specific, postsynaptically located PKC substrate. PKC phosphorylation of neurogranin was robustly increased by pro-manic manipulations and decreased by anti-manic agents. PKC phosphorylation of the NMDA receptor site GluN1S896 and the AMPA receptor site GluA1T840 was also enhanced in the prefrontal cortex of animals treated with the antidepressant imipramine, as well as in behaviorally sleep-deprived animals, in striking contrast to the reduced activity seen in lithium-treated animals. These results suggest that PKC may play an important role in regulating NMDA and AMPA receptor functions. The biochemical profile of the PKC pathway thus encompasses both pro- and anti-manic effects on behavior. These results suggest that PKC modulators or their intracellular targets may ultimately represent novel avenues for the development of new therapeutics for mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven T Szabo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, 1C912, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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72
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Breunig JJ, Arellano JI, Macklis JD, Rakic P. Everything that glitters isn't gold: a critical review of postnatal neural precursor analyses. Cell Stem Cell 2008; 1:612-27. [PMID: 18371403 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2007.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis research has made enormous strides in the last decade but has been complicated by several failures to replicate promising findings. Prevalent use of highly sensitive methods with inherent sources of error has led to extraordinary conclusions without adequate crossvalidation. Perhaps the biggest culprit is the reliance on molecules involved in DNA synthesis and genetic markers to indicate neuronal neogenesis. In this Protocol Review, we present an overview of common methodological issues in the field and suggest alternative approaches, including viral vectors, siRNA, and inducible transgenic/knockout mice. A multipronged approach will enhance the overall rigor of research on stem cell biology and related fields by allowing increased replication of findings between groups and across systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Breunig
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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Mathew SJ, Manji HK, Charney DS. Novel drugs and therapeutic targets for severe mood disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:2080-92. [PMID: 18172433 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Monoaminergic-based drugs remain the primary focus of pharmaceutical industry drug discovery efforts for mood disorders, despite serious limitations regarding their ability to achieve remission. The quest for novel therapies for unipolar depression and bipolar disorder has generally centered on two complementary approaches: (1) understanding the presumed therapeutically relevant biochemical targets of currently available medications, and using that knowledge to design new drugs directed at both direct biochemical targets and downstream targets that are regulated by chronic drug administration; and (2) developing pathophysiological models of the illness to design therapeutics to attenuate or prevent those pathological processes. This review describes several promising drugs and drug targets for mood disorders using one or both of these approaches. Agents interacting with non-catecholamine neurotransmitter systems with particular promise for unipolar and bipolar depression include excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter modulators (eg, riluzole, N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists, and AMPA receptor potentiators) and neuropeptide antagonists (targeting corticotropin releasing factor-1 and neurokinin receptors). Potential antidepressant and mood-stabilizing agents targeting common intracellular pathways of known monoaminergic agents and lithium/mood stabilizers are also reviewed, such as neurotrophic factors, extracellular receptor-coupled kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and the bcl-2 family of proteins, and inhibitors of phosphodiesterase, glycogen synthase kinase-3, and protein kinase C. A major thrust of drug discovery in mood disorders will continue efforts to identify agents with rapid and sustained onsets of action (such as intravenous administration of ketamine), as well as identify drugs used routinely in non-psychiatric diseases for their antidepressant and mood-stabilizing properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay J Mathew
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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Azab AN, Ishak JF, Kaplanski J, Delbar V, Greenberg ML. Mechanisms of action of the mood stabilizer valproate: a focus on GSK-3 inhibition. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.2217/14796708.3.4.433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Valproate is the most widely prescribed antiepileptic drug worldwide, and it is also used in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder, migraine headache and cancer. However, the therapeutic mechanism of action of valproate in these illness states is not understood. This article reviews the pharmacological effects of valproate that may explain its therapeutic efficacy. It focuses on the hypothesis that inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by valproate is a crucial therapeutic mechanism of this drug in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Other cellular pathways and signaling molecules that are targets of valproate (such as inositol de novo biosynthesis, histone deacetylase, protein kinase C, γ-aminobutyric acid, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway and others) are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abed N Azab
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, School for Community Health Professions, Faculty of Health Sciences, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Julia F Ishak
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Medical School for International Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Jacob Kaplanski
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Vered Delbar
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, School for Community Health Professions, Faculty of Health Sciences, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Miriam L Greenberg
- Wayne State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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Cleary C, Linde JAS, Hiscock KM, Hadas I, Belmaker RH, Agam G, Flaisher-Grinberg S, Einat H. Antidepressive-like effects of rapamycin in animal models: Implications for mTOR inhibition as a new target for treatment of affective disorders. Brain Res Bull 2008; 76:469-73. [PMID: 18534253 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2008.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Revised: 02/28/2008] [Accepted: 03/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lithium, the prototypic mood stabilizer, was recently demonstrated to enhance autophagy in cells. Recent hypotheses regarding the source of therapeutic effects of lithium as well as other mood stabilizers and antidepressants suggest that they may stem from increased neuroprotection, cellular plasticity and resilience. Hence it is clearly a possibility that enhanced autophagy may be involved in the therapeutic action by contributing to increased cellular resilience. A well-documented mechanism to induce autophagy is by inhibition of mTOR, a negative modulator of autophagy and rapamycin (sirolimus) is a commonly used inhibitor of mTOR. Accordingly, the present study was designed to evaluate the effects of rapamycin in animal models of antidepressant activity. A dose-response experiment in the mice forced swim test was performed and followed by additional testing of mice and rats in an open field, the forced swim test and the tail suspension test. Results show that sub-chronic, but not acute, administration of rapamycin doses of 10mg/kg and above, have an antidepressant-like effect in both mice and rats and in both the forced swim and the tail suspension tests with no effects on the amount or distribution of activity in the open field. Whereas it is tempting to conclude that the antidepressant-like effects are related to mTOR inhibition, they may also be the consequences of interactions with other intracellular pathways. Additional studies are now planned to further explore the behavioral range of rapamycin's effects as well as the biological mechanisms underlying these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cleary
- Integrated Biosciences Graduate Program, University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
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Kinases as drug targets in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Drug Discov Today 2008; 13:295-302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2008.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2007] [Revised: 02/13/2008] [Accepted: 02/14/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Kulkarni J, Gurvich C, Gilbert H, Mehmedbegovic F, Mu L, Marston N, Gavrilidis E, de Castella A. Hormone modulation: a novel therapeutic approach for women with severe mental illness. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2008; 42:83-8. [PMID: 18058448 DOI: 10.1080/00048670701732715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Accumulating evidence describes the effects of oestrogen and other gonadal hormones on the central nervous system and, in particular, on the mental state of women. Evidence supporting the psychotherapeutic effects of exogenous oestrogen has started to emerge only over the past two decades. The purpose of the present paper was to provide an overview of different applications of adjunctive hormones, as treatments for symptoms of severe mental illness in women. METHODS Three case reports are presented: in each case the woman selected had participated in large, double-blind, randomized controlled trials exploring hormone modulation. Case study 1 presents a premenopausal woman with schizophrenia, who received an 8 week trial of daily adjunctive 200 microg transdermal oestradiol. Case study 2 presents a postmenopausal woman with schizophrenia on a 12 week trial of adjunctive raloxifene hydrochloride 120 mg per day. Case study 3 presents a woman with schizoaffective disorder, in the manic phase, who received tamoxifen 40 mg per day for 28 days. RESULTS Adjunctive oestradiol was associated with an improvement in symptoms of psychosis in a premenopausal woman with schizophrenia; adjunctive raloxifene was associated with an improvement in cognitive functioning in a postmenopausal woman with schizophrenia; and adjunctive tamoxifen was associated with an improvement in symptoms of mania in a woman with schizoaffective disorder. CONCLUSIONS These findings are consistent with preliminary research trials suggesting that adjunctive hormone modulation is a promising area of gender-specific treatment for serious mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayashri Kulkarni
- Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Level 1, Old Baker Building, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Vic, Australia 3004.
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