Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System: A Patient-Friendly Chemotherapy for Oncology

Polysilicon Microchips Functionalized with Bipyridinium-Based Cyclophanes for a Highly Efficient Cytotoxicity in Cancerous Cells

The use of micrometric-sized vehicles could greatly improve selectivity of cytotoxic compounds as their lack of self-diffusion could maximize their retention in tissues. We have used polysilicon microparticles (SiμP) to conjugate bipyridinium-based compounds, able to induce cytotoxicity under regular intracellular conditions. Homogeneous functionalization in suspension was achieved, where the open-chain structure exhibits a more dense packing than cyclic analogues. The microparticles internalized induce high cytotoxicity per particle in cancerous HeLa cells, and the less densely packed functionalization using cyclophanes promotes higher cytotoxicity per bipy than with open-chain analogues. The self-renewing ability of the particles and their proximity to cell membranes may account for increased lipid peroxidation, achieving toxicity at much lower concentrations than that in solution and in less time, inducing highly efficient cytotoxicity in cancerous cells.

Targeted Codelivery of Prodigiosin and Simvastatin Using Smart BioMOF: Functionalization by Recombinant Anti-VEGFR1 scFv

Biological metal-organic frameworks (BioMOFs) are hybrid compounds in which metal nodes are linked to biocompatible organic ligands and have potential for medical application. Herein, we developed a novel BioMOF modified with an anti-VEGFR1 scFv antibody (D16F7 scFv). Our BioMOF is co-loaded with a combination of an anticancer compound and a lipid-lowering drug to simultaneously suppress the proliferation, growth rate and metastases of cancer cells in cell culture model system. In particular, Prodigiosin (PG) and Simvastatin (SIM) were co-loaded into the newly synthesized Ca-Gly BioMOF nanoparticles coated with maltose and functionalized with a recombinant maltose binding protein-scFv fragment of anti-VEGFR1 (Ca-Gly-Maltose-D16F7). The nanoformulation, termed PG + SIM-NP-D16F7, has been shown to have strong active targeting behavior towards VEGFR1-overexpresing cancer cells. Moreover, the co-delivery of PG and SIM not only effectively inhibits the proliferation of cancer cells, but also prevents their invasion and metastasis. The PG + SIM-NP-D16F7 nanocarrier exhibited stronger cytotoxic and anti-metastatic effects compared to mono-treatment of free drugs and drug-loaded nanoparticles. Smart co-delivery of PG and SIM on BioMOF nanoparticles had synergistic effects on growth inhibition and prevented cancer cell metastasis. The present nanoplatform can be introduced as a promising tool for chemotherapy compared with mono-treatment and/or non-targeted formulations.

PEGylated Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticle-Encapsulated Alphα-Terpineol for In Vitro Anticancer Effects

The aim of this study was to fabrication PEGylated lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles (PLC-NPs) as alphα-Terpineol's (αT-PLC-NPs) delivery system and examine its anti-cancer effects. αT-PLC-NPs were synthesized by self-assembling method; after characterization, entrapment efficiency of α-T was measured by HPLC procedure. MTT test was conducted for cytotoxicity evaluation. Chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis were used to determine the angiogenesis properties, and qPCR, flow cytometry, and acridine orange and propidium iodide (AO/PI) staining were used to evaluate the pro-apoptotic effects of αT-PLC-NPs. Finally, the anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activity of the αT-PLC-NPs was also evaluated. αT-PLC-NPs with a size of 220.8 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.3, zeta potential of +29.03 mV, and encapsulation efficiency of 82% showed higher inhibitory effect on MCF7 cells (IC₅₀: 750 μg/mL) compared to HFF cells (above 1000 μg/mL). Decreased angiogenesis indices and embryonic growth factors in CAM assay, decreased expression of VEGF and VEGF-R genes, and decreased cell migration showed the inhibitory effect of αT-PLC-NPs on angiogenesis. Increased expression of P53, P21, and caspase9 genes, as well as the results of AO/PI staining along with increasing the number of SubG1 phase cells in flow cytometry, confirmed the pro-apoptotic effects of αT-PLC-NPs. Also, its anti-inflammatory effects were demonstrated by inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6). The inhibitory power of αT-PLC-NPs in suppressing gram-positive and negative bacterial strains was demonstrated by disk diffusion (DD), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. PLC-NPs are a promising carrier for α-T transfer for preclinical studies.

Enhanced Anticancer Performance of Eco-Friendly-Prepared Mo-ZnO/RGO Nanocomposites: Role of Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis

ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted great attention in cancer therapy because of their novel and tailorable physicochemical features. Pure ZnO NPs, molybdenum (Mo)-doped ZnO NPs, and Mo-ZnO/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites (Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs) were prepared using a facile, inexpensive, and eco-friendly approach using date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruit extract. Anticancer efficacy of green synthesized NPs/NCs was examined in two different cancer cells. The potential mechanism of the anticancer activity of green synthesized NPs/NCs was explored through oxidative stress and apoptosis. The syntheses of pure ZnO NPs, Mo-ZnO NPs, and Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs were confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and photoluminescence (PL). Dynamic light scattering (DLS) study indicated the excellent colloidal stability of green prepared samples. Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs exhibited threefold higher anticancer activity in human colon (HCT116) and breast (MCF7) cancer cells as compared to pure ZnO NPs. The anticancer activity of Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs was mediated through reactive oxygen species, p53, and the caspase-3 pathway. Moreover, cytocompatibility of Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs in human normal colon epithelial (NCM460) and normal breast epithelial cells (MCF10A) was much better than those of pure ZnO NPs. Altogether, green stabilized Mo-ZnO/RGO NCs exhibited enhanced anticancer performance and improved cytocompatibility because of green mediated good synergism between ZnO, Mo, and RGO. This study suggested the high nutritional value fruit-based facile preparation of ZnO-based nanocomposites for cancer therapy.

Clinical application of nano-targeting for enhancing chemotherapeutic efficacy and safety in cancer management

Despite improvements in treatment, cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. While chemotherapy is effective, it also damages healthy tissue, leading to severe, dose-limiting side effects that can impair efficacy and even contribute to chemoresistance. Nano-based drug-delivery systems can potentially target the delivery of chemotherapy to improve efficacy and reduce adverse effects. A number of nanocarriers have been investigated for the delivery of chemotherapy, and many of the most promising agents have advanced to clinical trials. This review examines the safety and efficacy of nanoformulated chemotherapeutic agents in clinical trials, with particular emphasis on anthracyclines, taxanes and platinum compounds. It also briefly discusses the role nano-targeting might play in the prevention and treatment of chemoresistance.

Charge reversal nano-systems for tumor therapy

Surface charge of biological and medical nanocarriers has been demonstrated to play an important role in cellular uptake. Owing to the unique physicochemical properties, charge-reversal delivery strategy has rapidly developed as a promising approach for drug delivery application, especially for cancer treatment. Charge-reversal nanocarriers are neutral/negatively charged at physiological conditions while could be triggered to positively charged by specific stimuli (i.e., pH, redox, ROS, enzyme, light or temperature) to achieve the prolonged blood circulation and enhanced tumor cellular uptake, thus to potentiate the antitumor effects of delivered therapeutic agents. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the recent advances of charge-reversal nanocarriers, including: (i) the effect of surface charge on cellular uptake; (ii) charge-conversion mechanisms responding to several specific stimuli; (iii) relation between the chemical structure and charge reversal activity; and (iv) polymeric materials that are commonly applied in the charge-reversal delivery systems.

Application of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Osteosarcoma: Focusing on the Liposomes

Osteosarcoma (OS) is one of the most common primary bone malignancies in children and adolescents. The toxicity to healthy tissues from conventional therapeutic strategies, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and drug resistance, severely affect OS patients' quality of life and cancer-specific outcomes. Many efforts have been made to develop various nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems with specific properties to overcome these limitations. Among the developed nanocarriers, liposomes are the most successful and promising candidates for providing targeted tumor therapy and enhancing the safety and therapeutic effect of encapsulated agents. Liposomes have low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, prolonged half-life, active group protection, cell-like membrane structure, safety, and effectiveness. This review will discuss various nanomaterial-based carriers in cancer therapy and then the characteristics and design of liposomes with a particular focus on the targeting feature. We will also summarize the recent advances in the liposomal drug delivery system for OS treatment in preclinical and clinical studies.

Multidrug resistance crisis during COVID-19 pandemic: Role of anti-microbial peptides as next-generation therapeutics

The decreasing effectiveness of conventional drugs due to multidrug-resistance is a major challenge for the scientific community, necessitating development of novel antimicrobial agents. In the present era of coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) pandemic, patients are being widely exposed to antimicrobial drugs and hence the problem of multidrug-resistance shall be aggravated in the days to come. Consequently, revisiting the phenomena of multidrug resistance leading to formulation of effective antimicrobial agents is the need of the hour. As a result, this review sheds light on the looming crisis of multidrug resistance in wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. It highlights the problem, significance and approaches for tackling microbial resistance with special emphasis on anti-microbial peptides as next-generation therapeutics against multidrug resistance associated diseases. Antimicrobial peptides exhibit exceptional mechanism of action enabling rapid killing of microbes at low concentration, antibiofilm activity, immunomodulatory properties along with a low tendency for resistance development providing them an edge over conventional antibiotics. The review is unique as it discusses the mode of action, pharmacodynamic properties and application of antimicrobial peptides in areas ranging from therapeutics to agriculture.

Advances in Delivery of Chemotherapeutic Agents for Cancer Treatment

Presently, most of the treatment strategies for cancer are focused on the surgical removal of cancerous tumors, along with physical and chemical treatment such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, respectively. The primary issue associated with these methods is the inhibition of normal cell growth and serious side effects associated with systemic toxicity. The traditional chemotherapeutics which were delivered systemically were inadequate and had serious dose limiting side effects. Recent advances in the development of chemotherapeutics have simultaneously paved the way for efficient targeted drug delivery. Despite the advances in the field of oncogenic drugs, several limitations remain, such as early blood clearance, acquired resistance against cytotoxic agents, toxicity associated with chemotherapeutics, and site-specific drug delivery. Hence, this review article focuses on the recent scientific advancements made in different types of drug delivery systems, including, organic nanocarriers (polymers, albumins, liposomes, and micelles), inorganic nanocarriers (mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, platinum nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes), aptamers, antibody-drug conjugates, and peptides. These targeted drug delivery approaches offer numerous advantages such as site-specific drug delivery, minimal toxicity, better bioavailability, and an increased overall efficacy of the chemotherapeutics. Graphical abstract.

Benefits and challenges of antibody drug conjugates as novel form of chemotherapy

Antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) are an emerging therapeutic modality for targeted cancer treatment. They represent the unique amalgamation of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. ADCs comprise of monoclonal antibodies linked with drugs (payloads) through a chemical linker designed to deliver the cytotoxic moiety to the cancer cells. The present paper is a review of recent clinical advances of each component of ADCs (antibody/linker/payload) and how the individual component influences the activity of ADCs. The review discusses opportunities for improving ADCs efficiency and ways to have a better antibody-based molecular platform, which could substantially increase chemotherapy outcomes. This review casts an outlook on how ADCs enhancement in terms of their pharmacokinetics, therapeutic indexes and safety profiles can overcome the prevailing challenges like drug resistance in cancer treatment. A novel strategy of augmenting antibodies with nanoparticles anticipates a huge success in terms of targeted delivery of drugs in several diseases. Antibody conjugated nanoparticles (ACNPs) are a very promising strategy for the cutting-edge development of chemo/immunotherapies for efficient delivery of payloads at the targeted cancer cells. The avenues of a high drug to antibody ratio (DAR) owing to the selection of broad chemotherapy payloads, regulating drug release eliciting higher avidity of ACNPs over ADCs will be the modern immunotherapeutics. ACNPs carry immense potential to mark a paradigm shift in cancer chemotherapy that may be a substitute for ADCs.

Nano-Structured Lipid Carrier-Based Oral Glutathione Formulation Mediates Renoprotection against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Nephrotoxicity, and Improves Oral Bioavailability of Glutathione Confirmed through RP-HPLC Micellar Liquid Chromatography

The study aimed to develop a new glutathione (GSH) oral formulation to enhance the delivery of GSH and counter the nephrotoxicity of the anticancer drug, cyclophosphamide (CP). A nanostructured lipid carrier glutathione formulation (GSH-NLCs) composed of glutathione (500 mg), stearic and oleic acid (300 mg, each), and Tween® 80 (2%, w/v) was prepared through the emulsification-solvent-evaporation technique, which exhibited a 452.4 ± 33.19 nm spheroidal-sized particulate material with narrow particle size distributions, -38.5 ± 1.4 mV zeta potential, and an entrapment efficiency of 79.8 ± 1.9%. The GSH formulation was orally delivered, and biologically tested to ameliorate the CP-induced renal toxicity in a rat model. Detailed renal morphology, before and after the GSH-NLCs administration, including the histopathological examinations, confirmed the ameliorating effects of the prepared glutathione formulation together with its safe oral delivery. CP-induced oxidative stress, superoxide dismutase depletion, elevation of malondialdehyde levels, depletion of Bcl-2 concentration levels, and upregulated NF-KB levels were observed and were controlled within the recommended and near normal/control levels. Additionally, the inflammatory mediator marker, IL-1β, serum levels were marginally normalized by delivery of the GHS-NLCs formulation. Oral administration of the pure glutathione did not exhibit any ameliorating effects on the renal tissues, which suggested that the pure glutathione is reactive and is chemically transformed during the oral delivery, which affected its pharmacological action at the renal site. The protective effects of the GSH-NLCs formulation through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects suggested its prominent role in containing CP-induced renal toxicity and renal tissue damage, together with the possibility of administrating higher doses of the anticancer drug, cyclophosphamide, to achieve higher and effective anticancer action in combination with the GSH-NLCs formulation.

Hesperidin and its aglycone hesperetin in breast cancer therapy: A review of recent developments and future prospects

Breast cancer (BC) has high incidence and mortality rates, making it a major global health issue. BC treatment has been challenging due to the presence of drug resistance and the limited availability of therapeutic options for triple-negative and metastatic BC, thereby urging the exploration of more effective anti-cancer agents. Hesperidin and its aglycone hesperetin, two flavonoids from citrus species, have been extensively evaluated for their anti-cancer potentials. In this review, available literatures on the chemotherapeutic and chemosensitising activities of hesperidin and hesperetin in preclinical BC models are reported. The safety and bioavailability of hesperidin and hesperetin as well as the strategies to enhance their bioavailability are also discussed. Overall, hesperidin and hesperetin can inhibit cell proliferation, migration and BC stem cells as well as induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in vitro. They can also inhibit tumour growth, metastasis and neoplastic changes in tissue architecture in vivo. Moreover, the co-administration of hesperidin or hesperetin with doxorubicin, letrozole or tamoxifen can enhance the efficacies of these clinically available agents. These chemotherapeutic and chemosensitising activities of hesperidin and hesperetin have been linked to several mechanisms, including the modulation of signalling pathways, glucose uptake, enzymes, miRNA expression, oxidative status, cell cycle regulatory proteins, tumour suppressor p53, plasma and liver lipid profiles as well as DNA repair mechanisms. However, poor water solubility, extensive phase II metabolism and apical efflux have posed limitations to the bioavailability of hesperidin and hesperetin. Various strategies for bioavailability enhancement have been studied, including the utilisation of nano-based drug delivery systems and the co-administration of hesperetin with other flavonoids. In particular, nanoformulated hesperidin and hesperetin possess greater chemotherapeutic and chemosensitising activities than free compounds. Despite promising preclinical results, further safety and efficacy evaluation of hesperidin and hesperetin as well as their nanoformulations in clinical trials is required to ascertain their potentials to be developed as clinically useful agents for BC treatment.

Proteomic Research on the Antitumor Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms

Medicinal mushrooms are increasingly being recognized as an important therapeutic modality in complementary oncology. Until now, more than 800 mushroom species have been known to possess significant pharmacological properties, of which antitumor and immunomodulatory properties have been the most researched. Besides a number of medicinal mushroom preparations being used as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals, several isolates from mushrooms have been used as official antitumor drugs in clinical settings for several decades. Various proteomic approaches allow for the identification of a large number of differentially regulated proteins serendipitously, thereby providing an important platform for a discovery of new potential therapeutic targets and approaches as well as biomarkers of malignant disease. This review is focused on the current state of proteomic research into antitumor mechanisms of some of the most researched medicinal mushroom species, including Phellinus linteus, Ganoderma lucidum, Auricularia auricula, Agrocybe aegerita, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinus edodes, as whole body extracts or various isolates, as well as of complex extract mixtures.

Surface-engineered smart nanocarrier-based inhalation formulations for targeted lung cancer chemotherapy: a review of current practices

Lung cancer is the second most common and lethal cancer in the world. Chemotherapy is the preferred treatment modality for lung cancer and prolongs patient survival by effective controlling of tumor growth. However, owing to the nonspecific delivery of anticancer drugs, systemic chemotherapy has limited clinical efficacy and significant systemic adverse effects. Inhalation routes, on the other hand, allow for direct delivery of drugs to the lungs in high local concentrations, enhancing their anti-tumor activity with minimum side effects. Preliminary research studies have shown that inhaled chemotherapy may be tolerated with manageable adverse effects such as bronchospasm and cough. Enhancing the anticancer drugs deposition in tumor cells and limiting their distribution to other healthy cells will therefore increase their clinical efficacy and decrease their local and systemic toxicities. Because of the controlled release and localization of tumors, nanoparticle formulations are a viable option for the delivery of chemotherapeutics to lung cancers via inhalation. The respiratory tract physiology and lung clearance mechanisms are the key barriers to the effective deposition and preservation of inhaled nanoparticle formulations in the lungs. Designing and creating smart nanoformulations to optimize lung deposition, minimize pulmonary clearance, and improve cancerous tissue targeting have been the subject of recent research studies. This review focuses on recent examples of work in this area, along with the opportunities and challenges for the pulmonary delivery of smart nanoformulations to treat lung cancers.

Protein profile of MCF-7 breast cancer cell line treated with lectin delivered by CaCO3NPs revealed changes in molecular chaperones, cytoskeleton, and membrane-associated proteins

The second most predominant cancer in the world and the first among women is breast cancer. We aimed to study the protein abundance profiles induced by lectin purified from the Agaricus bisporus mushroom (ABL) and conjugated with CaCO₃NPs in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. Two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) and orbitrap mass spectrometry techniques were used to reveal the protein abundance pattern induced by lectin. Flow cytometric analysis showed the accumulation of ABL-CaCO₃NPs treated cells in the G1 phase than the positive control. Thirteen proteins were found different in their abundance in breast cancer cells after 24 h exposure to lectin conjugated with CaCO₃NPs. Most of the identified proteins were showing a low abundance in ABL-CaCO₃NPs treated cells in comparison to the positive and negative controls, including V-set and immunoglobulin domain, serum albumin, actin cytoplasmic 1, triosephosphate isomerase, tropomyosin alpha-4 chain, and endoplasmic reticulum chaperone BiP. Hornerin, tropomyosin alpha-1 chain, annexin A2, and protein disulfide-isomerase were up-regulated in comparison to the positive. Bioinformatic analyses revealed the regulation changes of these proteins mainly affected the pathways of 'Bcl-2-associated athanogene 2 signalling pathway', 'Unfolded protein response', 'Caveolar-mediated endocytosis signalling', 'Clathrin-mediated endocytosis signalling', 'Calcium signalling' and 'Sucrose degradation V', which are associated with breast cancer. We concluded that lectin altered the abundance in molecular chaperones/heat shock proteins, cytoskeletal, and metabolic proteins. Additionally, lectin induced a low abundance of MCF-7 cancer cell proteins in comparison to the positive and negative controls, including; V-set and immunoglobulin domain, serum albumin, actin cytoplasmic 1, triosephosphate isomerase, tropomyosin alpha-4 chain, and endoplasmic reticulum chaperone BiP.

Potential Use of Exosomes as Diagnostic Biomarkers and in Targeted Drug Delivery: Progress in Clinical and Preclinical Applications

Exosomes are cell-derived vesicles containing heterogeneous active biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, mRNAs, receptors, immune regulatory molecules, and nucleic acids. They typically range in size from 30 to 150 nm in diameter. An exosome's surfaces can be bioengineered with antibodies, fluorescent dye, peptides, and tailored for small molecule and large active biologics. Exosomes have enormous potential as a drug delivery vehicle due to enhanced biocompatibility, excellent payload capability, and reduced immunogenicity compared to alternative polymeric-based carriers. Because of active targeting and specificity, exosomes are capable of delivering their cargo to exosome-recipient cells. Additionally, exosomes can potentially act as early stage disease diagnostic tools as the exosome carries various protein biomarkers associated with a specific disease. In this review, we summarize recent progress on exosome composition, biological characterization, and isolation techniques. Finally, we outline the exosome's clinical applications and preclinical advancement to provide an outlook on the importance of exosomes for use in targeted drug delivery, biomarker study, and vaccine development.

Ewing sarcoma: investigational mono- and combination therapies in clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Over the last decades, multi-institutional clinical trials have resulted in significant improvements in the outcomes of patients with localized Ewing sarcoma; however, those with metastatic and recurrent diseases continue to fare poorly. More recently, advancements made in understanding the biology of the disease and mechanisms of response to therapy have opened the door for the incorporation of targeted therapies. Here we review the current state of treatment for Ewing sarcoma and the most recent preclinical advancements that have the potential to translate to improved care.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides a general overview of the most recent clinical trials completed in Ewing sarcoma, as well as the preclinical and translational data that has the potential to be incorporated into clinical trials. A PubMed review as well as a review of published meeting abstracts was used to compose this review.

EXPERT OPINION

While dose-intenstifying strategies have failed to lead to improvements in outcomes for patients with the highest-risk disease, recent preclinical advancements have shed light on potential new targeted strategies. The lack of early-phase clinical trial responses should not deter us from further developing these agents, but instead should guide us in designing novel combination strategies.

Is Emodin with Anticancer Effects Completely Innocent? Two Sides of the Coin

Many anticancer active compounds are known to have the capacity to destroy pathologically proliferating cancer cells in the body, as well as to destroy rapidly proliferating normal cells. Despite remarkable advances in cancer research over the past few decades, the inclusion of natural compounds in researches as potential drug candidates is becoming increasingly important. However, the perception that the natural is reliable is an issue that needs to be clarified. Among the various chemical classes of natural products, anthraquinones have many biological activities and have also been proven to exhibit a unique anticancer activity. Emodin, an anthraquinone derivative, is a natural compound found in the roots and rhizomes of many plants. The anticancer property of emodin, a broad-spectrum inhibitory agent of cancer cells, has been detailed in many biological pathways. In cancer cells, these molecular mechanisms consist of suppressing cell growth and proliferation through the attenuation of oncogenic growth signaling, such as protein kinase B (AKT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), HER-2 tyrosine kinase, Wnt/-catenin, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). However, it is known that emodin, which shows toxicity to cancer cells, may cause kidney toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity especially at high doses and long-term use. At the same time, studies of emodin, which has poor oral bioavailability, to transform this disadvantage into an advantage with nano-carrier systems reveal that natural compounds are not always directly usable compounds. Consequently, this review aimed to shed light on the anti-proliferative and anti-carcinogenic properties of emodin, as well as its potential toxicities and the advantages of drug delivery systems on bioavailability.

Combination Chemotherapy with Cisplatin and Chloroquine: Effect of Encapsulation in Micelles Formed by Self-Assembling Hybrid Dendritic-Linear-Dendritic Block Copolymers

Clinical outcomes of conventional drug combinations are not ideal due to high toxicity to healthy tissues. Cisplatin (CDDP) is the standard component for many cancer treatments, yet its principal dose-limiting side effect is nephrotoxicity. Thus, CDDP is commonly used in combination with other drugs, such as the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ), to enhance tumor cell killing efficacy and prevent the development of chemoresistance. In addition, nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems can overcome chemotherapy limitations, decreasing side effects and increasing tumor accumulation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of CQ and CDDP against tumor and non-tumor cells when used in a combined treatment. For this purpose, two types of micelles based on Pluronic^® F127 hybrid dendritic–linear–dendritic block copolymers (HDLDBCs) modified with polyester or poly(esteramide) dendrons derived from 2,2′-bis(hydroxymethyl)propionic acid (HDLDBC-bMPA) or 2,2′-bis(glycyloxymethyl)propionic acid (HDLDBC-bGMPA) were explored as delivery nanocarriers. Our results indicated that the combined treatment with HDLDBC-bMPA(CQ) or HDLDBC-bGMPA(CQ) and CDDP increased cytotoxicity in tumor cells compared to the single treatment with CDDP. Encapsulations demonstrated less short-term cytotoxicity individually or when used in combination compared to the free drugs. However, and more importantly, a low degree of cytotoxicity against non-tumor cells was maintained, even when drugs were given simultaneously.

Advances in Multiple Stimuli-Responsive Drug-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Nanomedicines afford unique advantages in therapeutic intervention against tumors. However, conventional nanomedicines have failed to achieve the desired effect against cancers because of the presence of complicated physiological fluids and the tumor microenvironment. Stimuli-responsive drug-delivery systems have emerged as potential tools for advanced treatment of cancers. Versatile nano-carriers co-triggered by multiple stimuli in different levels of organisms (eg, extracorporeal, tumor tissue, cell, subcellular organelles) have aroused widespread interest because they can overcome sequential physiological and pathological barriers to deliver diverse therapeutic “payloads” to the desired targets. Furthermore, multiple stimuli-responsive drug-delivery systems (MSR-DDSs) offer a good platform for co-delivery of agents and reversing multidrug resistance. This review affords a comprehensive overview on the “landscape” of MSR-DDSs against tumors, highlights the design strategies of MSR-DDSs in recent years, discusses the putative advantage of oncotherapy or the obstacles that so far have hindered the clinical translation of MSR-DDSs.

Doxorubicin Loaded PLGA Nanoparticle with Cationic/Anionic Polyelectrolyte Decoration: Characterization, and Its Therapeutic Potency

Optimized Doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (DPN) were prepared by controlling the water/oil distribution of DOX at different pH solutions and controlling the electrostatic interaction between DOX and different terminated-end PLGAs. Furthermore, cationic polyethylenimine (PEI) and anionic poly (acrylic acid) (PAA) were alternately deposited on DPN surface to form PEI-DPN (IDPN) and PAA-PEI-DPN (AIDPN) to enhance cancer therapy potency. Compared to DPN, IDPN exhibited a slower release rate in physiological conditions but PEI was demonstrated to increase the efficiency of cellular uptake and endo/lysosomal escape ability. AIDPN, with the outermost negatively charged PAA layer, still retained better endo/lysosomal escape ability compared to DPN. In addition, AIDPN exhibited the best pH-dependent release profile with 1.6 times higher drug release in pH 5.5 than in pH 7.4. Therefore, AIDPN with the characteristics of PEI and PAA simultaneously was the most optional cancer therapy choice within these three PLGA nanoparticles. As the proposed nanoparticles integrated optimal procedure factors, and possessed cationic and anionic outlayer, our drug delivery nanoparticles can provide an alternative solution to current drug delivery technologies.

Theoretical analysis of the structural and electronic properties of the interaction of boron nitride diamantane nanocrystal with the drug hydroxyurea as an anticancer drug

The density functional theory calculations with hybrid B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) basis sets have been used to examine the structural and electronic properties of boron nitride (BN) diamantane interacted with the drug hydroxyurea (HU) as an anticancer drug. The findings have been shown that there is a decrease in the total energy after combining the drug with diamantane. The energy levels of HOMO and LUMO analyses indicate that the value of HOMO energy increased slightly, while the value of LUMO energy decreased significantly in these systems in the HU/BN diamantane. In addition, the decreasing of the energy gap between HOMO and LUMO confirms a strong bond between the drug hydroxyurea and BN diamantane. Finally, the drug's stability and reactivity with BN diamantane were investigated by measuring chemical reaction characteristics such as chemical potential, electron affinity, global hardness, and electrophilicity index. As a result, the nanocrystal of BN diamantane can be considered a vector for the delivery of anticancer drugs within biological systems.

Therapeutic Efficacy and Biodistribution of Paclitaxel-Bound Amphiphilic Cyclodextrin Nanoparticles: Analyses in 3D Tumor Culture and Tumor-Bearing Animals In Vivo

The uniqueness of paclitaxel’s antimitotic action mechanism has fueled research toward its application in more effective and safer cancer treatments. However, the low water solubility, recrystallization, and side effects hinder the clinical success of classic paclitaxel chemotherapy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vivo efficacy and biodistribution of paclitaxel encapsulated in injectable amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles of different surface charges. It was found that paclitaxel-loaded amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles showed an antitumoral effect earlier than the drug solution. Moreover, the blank nanoparticles reduced the tumor growth with a similar trend to the paclitaxel solution. At 24 h, the nanoparticles had not accumulated in the heart and lungs according to the biodistribution assessed by in vivo imaging. Therefore, our results indicated that the amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles are potentially devoid of cardiac toxicity, which limits the clinical use and commercialization of certain polymeric nanoparticles. In conclusion, the amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles with different surface charge increased the efficiency of paclitaxel in vitro and in vivo. Cyclodextrin nanoparticles could be a good candidate vehicle for intravenous paclitaxel delivery.

Nanomedicine Interventions in Clinical Trials for the Treatment of Metastatic Breast Cancer

Breast cancer was responsible for the deaths of 626,679 women in 2018. After decades of research, the mortality rates remain high. While the barrier of selectively killing tumor cells is not yet overcome, the search for targeted therapeutics continues. The use of nanomedicine in cancer treatment has opened up new possibilities for more precise drug-delivery systems. This review aimed to gather information and analyze recent clinical trials evaluating the therapeutic effects of nanoparticles in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. To accomplish this, the clinicaltrials.gov database was consulted, and after employing specific exclusion criteria, 11 clinical trials were selected. Nanoparticle albumin-stabilized paclitaxel was evaluated in ten clinical trials and paclitaxel-incorporating polymeric micelles were assessed in one clinical trial. Overall, this review confirmed a clinical benefit in the use of nanoparticle albumin-stabilized paclitaxel for the treatment of breast cancer, with reduced toxicity when compared to first-line treatments. Three studies did not meet the primary endpoint, however, and so the authors advised further evaluations. Although the use of nanomedicine is revolutionizing the cancer field, to integrate this regimen into generalized clinical treatment, additional clinical trials must be performed to achieve a favorable safety and efficacy profile.

Towards an Integral Therapeutic Protocol for Breast Cancer Based upon the New H+-Centered Anticancer Paradigm of the Late Post-Warburg Era

A brand new approach to the understanding of breast cancer (BC) is urgently needed. In this contribution, the etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of this disease is approached from the new pH-centric anticancer paradigm. Only this unitarian perspective, based upon the hydrogen ion (H+) dynamics of cancer, allows for the understanding and integration of the many dualisms, confusions, and paradoxes of the disease. The new H+-related, wide-ranging model can embrace, from a unique perspective, the many aspects of the disease and, at the same time, therapeutically interfere with most, if not all, of the hallmarks of cancer known to date. The pH-related armamentarium available for the treatment of BC reviewed here may be beneficial for all types and stages of the disease. In this vein, we have attempted a megasynthesis of traditional and new knowledge in the different areas of breast cancer research and treatment based upon the wide-ranging approach afforded by the hydrogen ion dynamics of cancer. The concerted utilization of the pH-related drugs that are available nowadays for the treatment of breast cancer is advanced.