51
|
Abstract
Chromosomes underlie a dynamic organization that fulfills functional roles in processes like transcription, DNA repair, nuclear envelope stability, and cell division. Chromosome dynamics depend on chromosome structure and cannot freely diffuse. Furthermore, chromosomes interact closely with their surrounding nuclear environment, which further constrains chromosome dynamics. Recently, several studies enlighten that cytoskeletal proteins regulate dynamic chromosome organization. Cytoskeletal polymers that include actin filaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments can connect to the nuclear envelope via Linker of the Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complexes and transfer forces onto chromosomes inside the nucleus. Monomers of these cytoplasmic polymers and related proteins can also enter the nucleus and play different roles in the interior of the nucleus than they do in the cytoplasm. Nuclear cytoskeletal proteins can act as chromatin remodelers alone or in complexes with other nuclear proteins. They can also act as transcription factors. Many of these mechanisms have been conserved during evolution, indicating that the cytoskeletal regulation of chromosome dynamics is an essential process. In this review, we discuss the different influences of cytoskeletal proteins on chromosome dynamics by focusing on the well-studied model organism budding yeast.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maya Spichal
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel HillNC, United States
| | - Emmanuelle Fabre
- Equipe Biologie et Dynamique des Chromosomes, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, CNRS UMR 7212, INSERM U944, Hôpital St. Louis 1Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Wang R, Kamgoue A, Normand C, Léger-Silvestre I, Mangeat T, Gadal O. High resolution microscopy reveals the nuclear shape of budding yeast during cell cycle and in various biological states. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:4480-4495. [PMID: 27831493 PMCID: PMC5201014 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.188250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
How spatial organization of the genome depends on nuclear shape is unknown, mostly because accurate nuclear size and shape measurement is technically challenging. In large cell populations of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we assessed the geometry (size and shape) of nuclei in three dimensions with a resolution of 30 nm. We improved an automated fluorescence localization method by implementing a post-acquisition correction of the spherical microscopic aberration along the z-axis, to detect the three dimensional (3D) positions of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) in the nuclear envelope. Here, we used a method called NucQuant to accurately estimate the geometry of nuclei in 3D throughout the cell cycle. To increase the robustness of the statistics, we aggregated thousands of detected NPCs from a cell population in a single representation using the nucleolus or the spindle pole body (SPB) as references to align nuclei along the same axis. We could detect asymmetric changes of the nucleus associated with modification of nucleolar size. Stereotypical modification of the nucleus toward the nucleolus further confirmed the asymmetric properties of the nuclear envelope. Summary: This novel method to explore 3D geometry of the nuclear envelope with enhanced resolution and post-acquisition correction of z-axis aberration revealed increased NPC density near the SPB and the nucleolus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renjie Wang
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| | - Alain Kamgoue
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| | - Christophe Normand
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| | - Isabelle Léger-Silvestre
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| | - Thomas Mangeat
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire du Contrôle de la Prolifération, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| | - Olivier Gadal
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse 31000, France
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Pontvianne F, Carpentier MC, Durut N, Pavlištová V, Jaške K, Schořová Š, Parrinello H, Rohmer M, Pikaard CS, Fojtová M, Fajkus J, Sáez-Vásquez J. Identification of Nucleolus-Associated Chromatin Domains Reveals a Role for the Nucleolus in 3D Organization of the A. thaliana Genome. Cell Rep 2016; 16:1574-1587. [PMID: 27477271 PMCID: PMC5279810 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleolus is the site of rRNA gene transcription, rRNA processing, and ribosome biogenesis. However, the nucleolus also plays additional roles in the cell. We isolated nucleoli using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and identified nucleolus-associated chromatin domains (NADs) by deep sequencing, comparing wild-type plants and null mutants for the nucleolar protein NUCLEOLIN 1 (NUC1). NADs are primarily genomic regions with heterochromatic signatures and include transposable elements (TEs), sub-telomeric regions, and mostly inactive protein-coding genes. However, NADs also include active rRNA genes and the entire short arm of chromosome 4 adjacent to them. In nuc1 null mutants, which alter rRNA gene expression and overall nucleolar structure, NADs are altered, telomere association with the nucleolus is decreased, and telomeres become shorter. Collectively, our studies reveal roles for NUC1 and the nucleolus in the spatial organization of chromosomes as well as telomere maintenance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Pontvianne
- CNRS, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France; Department of Biology and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
| | - Marie-Christine Carpentier
- CNRS, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France
| | - Nathalie Durut
- CNRS, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France
| | - Veronika Pavlištová
- Central European Institute of Technology and Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karin Jaške
- Central European Institute of Technology and Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Šárka Schořová
- Central European Institute of Technology and Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - Craig S Pikaard
- Department of Biology and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Miloslava Fojtová
- Central European Institute of Technology and Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Fajkus
- Central European Institute of Technology and Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Julio Sáez-Vásquez
- CNRS, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France; Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes, UMR5096, 66860 Perpignan, France
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Pueschel R, Coraggio F, Meister P. From single genes to entire genomes: the search for a function of nuclear organization. Development 2016; 143:910-23. [PMID: 26980791 DOI: 10.1242/dev.129007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The existence of different domains within the nucleus has been clear from the time, in the late 1920s, that heterochromatin and euchromatin were discovered. The observation that heterochromatin is less transcribed than euchromatin suggested that microscopically identifiable structures might correspond to functionally different domains of the nucleus. Until 15 years ago, studies linking gene expression and subnuclear localization were limited to a few genes. As we discuss in this Review, new genome-wide techniques have now radically changed the way nuclear organization is analyzed. These have provided a much more detailed view of functional nuclear architecture, leading to the emergence of a number of new paradigms of chromatin folding and how this folding evolves during development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ringo Pueschel
- Cell Fate and Nuclear Organization, Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Coraggio
- Cell Fate and Nuclear Organization, Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Meister
- Cell Fate and Nuclear Organization, Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Barutcu AR, Lajoie BR, Fritz AJ, McCord RP, Nickerson JA, van Wijnen AJ, Lian JB, Stein JL, Dekker J, Stein GS, Imbalzano AN. SMARCA4 regulates gene expression and higher-order chromatin structure in proliferating mammary epithelial cells. Genome Res 2016; 26:1188-201. [PMID: 27435934 PMCID: PMC5052043 DOI: 10.1101/gr.201624.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The packaging of DNA into chromatin plays an important role in transcriptional regulation and nuclear processes. Brahma-related gene-1 SMARCA4 (also known as BRG1), the essential ATPase subunit of the mammalian SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex, uses the energy from ATP hydrolysis to disrupt nucleosomes at target regions. Although the transcriptional role of SMARCA4 at gene promoters is well-studied, less is known about its role in higher-order genome organization. SMARCA4 knockdown in human mammary epithelial MCF-10A cells resulted in 176 up-regulated genes, including many related to lipid and calcium metabolism, and 1292 down-regulated genes, some of which encode extracellular matrix (ECM) components that can exert mechanical forces and affect nuclear structure. ChIP-seq analysis of SMARCA4 localization and SMARCA4-bound super-enhancers demonstrated extensive binding at intergenic regions. Furthermore, Hi-C analysis showed extensive SMARCA4-mediated alterations in higher-order genome organization at multiple resolutions. First, SMARCA4 knockdown resulted in clustering of intra- and inter-subtelomeric regions, demonstrating a novel role for SMARCA4 in telomere organization. SMARCA4 binding was enriched at topologically associating domain (TAD) boundaries, and SMARCA4 knockdown resulted in weakening of TAD boundary strength. Taken together, these findings provide a dynamic view of SMARCA4-dependent changes in higher-order chromatin organization and gene expression, identifying SMARCA4 as a novel component of chromatin organization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Rasim Barutcu
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Bryan R Lajoie
- Program in Systems Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
| | - Andrew J Fritz
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA
| | - Rachel P McCord
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Nickerson
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Andre J van Wijnen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
| | - Jane B Lian
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA
| | - Janet L Stein
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA
| | - Job Dekker
- Program in Systems Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
| | - Gary S Stein
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA
| | - Anthony N Imbalzano
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Gasser SM. Nuclear Architecture: Past and Future Tense. Trends Cell Biol 2016; 26:473-475. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
57
|
Miles S, Croxford MW, Abeysinghe AP, Breeden LL. Msa1 and Msa2 Modulate G1-Specific Transcription to Promote G1 Arrest and the Transition to Quiescence in Budding Yeast. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1006088. [PMID: 27272642 PMCID: PMC4894574 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Yeast that naturally exhaust their glucose source can enter a quiescent state that is characterized by reduced cell size, and high cell density, stress tolerance and longevity. The transition to quiescence involves highly asymmetric cell divisions, dramatic reprogramming of transcription and global changes in chromatin structure and chromosome topology. Cells enter quiescence from G1 and we find that there is a positive correlation between the length of G1 and the yield of quiescent cells. The Swi4 and Swi6 transcription factors, which form the SBF transcription complex and promote the G1 to S transition in cycling cells, are also critical for the transition to quiescence. Swi6 forms a second complex with Mbp1 (MBF), which is not required for quiescence. These are the functional analogues of the E2F complexes of higher eukaryotes. Loss of the RB analogue, Whi5, and the related protein Srl3/Whi7, delays G1 arrest, but it also delays recovery from quiescence. Two MBF- and SBF-Associated proteins have been identified that have little effect on SBF or MBF activity in cycling cells. We show that these two related proteins, Msa1 and Msa2, are specifically required for the transition to quiescence. Like the E2F complexes that are quiescence-specific, Msa1 and Msa2 are required to repress the transcription of many SBF target genes, including SWI4, the CLN2 cyclin and histones, specifically after glucose is exhausted from the media. They also activate transcription of many MBF target genes. msa1msa2 cells fail to G1 arrest and rapidly lose viability upon glucose exhaustion. msa1msa2 mutants that survive this transition are very large, but they attain the same thermo-tolerance and longevity of wild type quiescent cells. This indicates that Msa1 and Msa2 are required for successful transition to quiescence, but not for the maintenance of that state. In spite of the many differences between yeast and humans, the basic strategies that regulate the cell division cycle are fundamentally conserved. In this study, we extend these parallels to include a common strategy by which cells transition from proliferation to quiescence. The decision to divide is made in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. During G1, the genes that drive DNA replication are repressed by the E2F/RB complex. When a signal to divide is received, RB is removed and the complex is activated. When cells commit to a long term, but reversible G1 arrest, or quiescence, they express a novel E2F/RB-like complex, which promotes and maintains a stable repressive state. Yeast cells contain a functional analog of E2F/RB, called SBF/Whi5, which is activated by a similar mechanism in proliferating yeast cells. In this study, we identify two novel components of the SBF/Whi5 complex whose activity is specific to the transition to quiescence. These factors, Msa1 and Msa2, repress SBF targets and are required for the long term, but reversible G1 arrest that is critical for achieving a quiescent state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shawna Miles
- Basic Science Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Matthew W Croxford
- Basic Science Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Amali P Abeysinghe
- Basic Science Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Linda L Breeden
- Basic Science Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Laporte D, Courtout F, Tollis S, Sagot I. Quiescent Saccharomyces cerevisiae forms telomere hyperclusters at the nuclear membrane vicinity through a multifaceted mechanism involving Esc1, the Sir complex, and chromatin condensation. Mol Biol Cell 2016; 27:1875-84. [PMID: 27122604 PMCID: PMC4907721 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-01-0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Upon quiescence entry, yeast cells assemble telomere hyperclusters. These structures localize to the nuclear membrane in an Esc1-dependent manner and assemble through the combined action of the Sir complex, deacetylation of H4K16, the binding of the linker histone H1, and condensin. Like other eukaryotes, Saccharomyces cerevisiae spatially organizes its chromosomes within the nucleus. In G1 phase, the yeast’s 32 telomeres are clustered into 6–10 foci that dynamically interact with the nuclear membrane. Here we show that, when cells leave the division cycle and enter quiescence, telomeres gather into two to three hyperclusters at the nuclear membrane vicinity. This localization depends on Esc1 but not on the Ku proteins. Telomere hypercluster formation requires the Sir complex but is independent of the nuclear microtubule bundle that specifically assembles in quiescent cells. Importantly, mutants deleted for the linker histone H1 Hho1 or defective in condensin activity or affected for histone H4 Lys-16 deacetylation are impaired, at least in part, for telomere hypercluster formation in quiescence, suggesting that this process involves chromosome condensation. Finally, we establish that telomere hypercluster formation is not necessary for quiescence establishment, maintenance, and exit, raising the question of the physiological raison d’être of this nuclear reorganization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Damien Laporte
- Université de Bordeaux-Institut de Biochimie et Génétique Cellulaires, 33000 Bordeaux, France CNRS-UMR5095 Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux cedex, France
| | - Fabien Courtout
- Université de Bordeaux-Institut de Biochimie et Génétique Cellulaires, 33000 Bordeaux, France CNRS-UMR5095 Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux cedex, France
| | - Sylvain Tollis
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH93BF, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle Sagot
- Université de Bordeaux-Institut de Biochimie et Génétique Cellulaires, 33000 Bordeaux, France CNRS-UMR5095 Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux cedex, France
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Gonzalo S, Eissenberg JC. Tying up loose ends: telomeres, genomic instability and lamins. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2016; 37:109-118. [PMID: 27010504 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
On casual inspection, the eukaryotic nucleus is a deceptively simple organelle. Far from being a bag of chromatin, the nucleus is, in some ways, a structural and functional extension of the chromosomes it contains. Recently, interest has intensified in how chromosome compartmentalization and dynamics affect nuclear function. Different studies uncovered functional interactions between chromosomes and the filamentous nuclear meshwork comprised of lamin proteins. Here, we summarize recent research suggesting that telomeres, the capping structures that protect chromosome ends, are stabilized by lamin-binding and that alterations in nuclear lamins lead to defects in telomere compartmentalization, homeostasis and function. Telomere dysfunction contributes to the genomic instability that characterizes aging-related diseases, and might be an important factor in the pathophysiology of lamin-related diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susana Gonzalo
- Edward A. Doisy Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Doisy Research Center, 1100 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63104, USA.
| | - Joel C Eissenberg
- Edward A. Doisy Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Doisy Research Center, 1100 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Marbouty M, Koszul R. Metagenome Analysis Exploiting High-Throughput Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) Data. Trends Genet 2015; 31:673-682. [PMID: 26608779 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Microbial communities are complex and constitute important parts of our environment. Genomic analysis of these populations is a dynamic research area but remains limited by the difficulty in assembling full genomes of individual species. Recently, a new method for metagenome assembly/analysis based on chromosome conformation capture has emerged (meta3C). This approach quantifies the collisions experienced by DNA molecules to identify those sharing the same cellular compartments, allowing the characterization of genomes present within complex mixes of species. The exploitation of these chromosome 3D signatures holds promising perspectives for genome sequencing of discrete species in complex populations. It also has the potential to assign correctly extra-chromosomal elements, such as plasmids, mobile elements and phages, to their host cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martial Marbouty
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Genomes and Genetics, Groupe Régulation Spatiale des Génomes, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 3525, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Romain Koszul
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Genomes and Genetics, Groupe Régulation Spatiale des Génomes, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 3525, 75015 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
DNA clusters help yeast in hard times. Nature 2015. [DOI: 10.1038/526166c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|