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Paolicelli RC, Bergamini G, Rajendran L. Cell-to-cell Communication by Extracellular Vesicles: Focus on Microglia. Neuroscience 2018; 405:148-157. [PMID: 29660443 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles, including exosomes and microvesicles, are small, nano-to-micrometer vesicles that are released from cells. While initially observed in immune cells and reticulocytes as vesicles meant to remove archaic proteins, now they have been observed in almost all cell types of multicellular organisms. Growing evidence indicates that extracellular vesicles, containing lipids, proteins and RNAs, represent an efficient way to transfer functional cargoes from one cell to another. In the central nervous system, the extensive cross-talk ongoing between neurons and glia, including microglia, the immune cells of the brain, takes advantage of secreted vesicles, which mediate intercellular communication over long range distance. Recent literature supports a critical role for extracellular vesicles in mediating complex and coordinated communication among neurons, astrocytes and microglia, both in the healthy and in the diseased brain. In this review, we focus on the biogenesis and function of microglia-related extracellular vesicles and focus on their putative role in Alzheimer's disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa C Paolicelli
- Systems and Cell Biology of Neurodegeneration, IREM - Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Giorgio Bergamini
- Preclinical Laboratory for Translational Research into Affective Disorders (PLaTRAD), Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lawrence Rajendran
- Systems and Cell Biology of Neurodegeneration, IREM - Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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52
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Histone Deacetylases 1 and 2 Regulate Microglia Function during Development, Homeostasis, and Neurodegeneration in a Context-Dependent Manner. Immunity 2018; 48:514-529.e6. [PMID: 29548672 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Microglia as tissue macrophages contribute to the defense and maintenance of central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis. Little is known about the epigenetic signals controlling microglia function in vivo. We employed constitutive and inducible mutagenesis in microglia to delete two class I histone deacetylases, Hdac1 and Hdac2. Prenatal ablation of Hdac1 and Hdac2 impaired microglial development. Mechanistically, the promoters of pro-apoptotic and cell cycle genes were hyperacetylated in absence of Hdac1 and Hdac2, leading to increased apoptosis and reduced survival. In contrast, Hdac1 and Hdac2 were not required for adult microglia survival during homeostasis. In a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, deletion of Hdac1 and Hdac2 in microglia, but not in neuroectodermal cells, resulted in a decrease in amyloid load and improved cognitive impairment by enhancing microglial amyloid phagocytosis. Collectively, we report a role for epigenetic factors that differentially affect microglia development, homeostasis, and disease that could potentially be utilized therapeutically.
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53
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Liu W, Molnar M, Garnham C, Benav H, Rask-Andersen H. Macrophages in the Human Cochlea: Saviors or Predators-A Study Using Super-Resolution Immunohistochemistry. Front Immunol 2018; 9:223. [PMID: 29487598 PMCID: PMC5816790 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human inner ear, which is segregated by a blood/labyrinth barrier, contains resident macrophages [CD163, ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA1)-, and CD68-positive cells] within the connective tissue, neurons, and supporting cells. In the lateral wall of the cochlea, these cells frequently lie close to blood vessels as perivascular macrophages. Macrophages are also shown to be recruited from blood-borne monocytes to damaged and dying hair cells induced by noise, ototoxic drugs, aging, and diphtheria toxin-induced hair cell degeneration. Precise monitoring may be crucial to avoid self-targeting. Macrophage biology has recently shown that populations of resident tissue macrophages may be fundamentally different from circulating macrophages. We removed uniquely preserved human cochleae during surgery for treating petroclival meningioma compressing the brain stem, after ethical consent. Molecular and cellular characterization using immunofluorescence with antibodies against IBA1, TUJ1, CX3CL1, and type IV collagen, and super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM) were made together with transmission electron microscopy. The super-resolution microscopy disclosed remarkable phenotypic variants of IBA1 cells closely associated with the spiral ganglion cells. Monitoring cells adhered to neurons with “synapse-like” specializations and protrusions. Active macrophages migrated occasionally nearby damaged hair cells. Results suggest that the human auditory nerve is under the surveillance and possible neurotrophic stimulation of a well-developed resident macrophage system. It may be alleviated by the non-myelinated nerve soma partly explaining why, in contrary to most mammals, the human’s auditory nerve is conserved following deafferentiation. It makes cochlear implantation possible, for the advantage of the profoundly deaf. The IBA1 cells may serve additional purposes such as immune modulation, waste disposal, and nerve regeneration. Their role in future stem cell-based therapy needs further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Section of Otolaryngology, Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Matyas Molnar
- Immunology, Genetics and Pathology - Biovis Platform, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Helge Rask-Andersen
- Head and Neck Surgery, Section of Otolaryngology, Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
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54
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Bolós M, Perea JR, Terreros-Roncal J, Pallas-Bazarra N, Jurado-Arjona J, Ávila J, Llorens-Martín M. Absence of microglial CX3CR1 impairs the synaptic integration of adult-born hippocampal granule neurons. Brain Behav Immun 2018; 68:76-89. [PMID: 29017970 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are immune cells that play a crucial role in maintaining brain homeostasis. Among the mechanisms of communication between microglia and neurons, the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis exerts a central modulatory role. Animals lacking CX3CR1 microglial receptor (CX3CR1-/- mice) exhibit marked alterations not only in microglia but also in neurons located in various regions of the brain. Here we show that microglial depletion of CX3CR1 leads to the deficient synaptic integration of adult-born granule neurons in the dentate gyrus (DG), both at the afferent and efferent level. Regarding the alterations in the former level, these cells show a reduced number of dendritic spines, which also exhibit morphological changes, namely enlargement and shortening. With respect to changes at the efferent level, these cells show a reduced area of axonal terminals. Both at the afferent and efferent level, synapses show ultrastructural enlargement, but they are depleted of synaptic vesicles, which suggests impaired functionality. We also show that selective increased microglial activation and extracellular matrix deposition in the zones in which the afferent synaptic contacts of these cells occur, namely in the molecular and the granule layer of the DG. In order to evaluate the impact of these structural alterations from a functional point of view, we performed a battery of behavioral tests related to hippocampal-dependent emotional behavior. We observed that female CX3CR1-/- mice exhibit a hyperactive, anxiolytic-like and depressive-like phenotype. These data shed light on novel aspects of the regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis by microglia that could be highly relevant for research into mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bolós
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - J R Perea
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - J Terreros-Roncal
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - N Pallas-Bazarra
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - J Jurado-Arjona
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - J Ávila
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - M Llorens-Martín
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CBMSO, CSIC-UAM. Madrid (Spain). Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Spain; Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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55
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Lee M, Lee Y, Song J, Lee J, Chang SY. Tissue-specific Role of CX 3CR1 Expressing Immune Cells and Their Relationships with Human Disease. Immune Netw 2018; 18:e5. [PMID: 29503738 PMCID: PMC5833124 DOI: 10.4110/in.2018.18.e5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Revised: 12/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemokine (C-X3-C motif) ligand 1 (CX3CL1, also known as fractalkine) and its receptor chemokine (C-X3-C motif) receptor 1 (CX3CR1) are widely expressed in immune cells and non-immune cells throughout organisms. However, their expression is mostly cell type-specific in each tissue. CX3CR1 expression can be found in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. Interaction between CX3CL1 and CX3CR1 can mediate chemotaxis of immune cells according to concentration gradient of ligands. CX3CR1 expressing immune cells have a main role in either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory response depending on environmental condition. In a given tissue such as bone marrow, brain, lung, liver, gut, and cancer, CX3CR1 expressing cells can maintain tissue homeostasis. Under pathologic conditions, however, CX3CR1 expressing cells can play a critical role in disease pathogenesis. Here, we discuss recent progresses of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 in major tissues and their relationships with human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myoungsoo Lee
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Yongsung Lee
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Jihye Song
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Junhyung Lee
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Sun-Young Chang
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
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56
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Mecca C, Giambanco I, Donato R, Arcuri C. Microglia and Aging: The Role of the TREM2-DAP12 and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 Axes. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E318. [PMID: 29361745 PMCID: PMC5796261 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Depending on the species, microglial cells represent 5-20% of glial cells in the adult brain. As the innate immune effector of the brain, microglia are involved in several functions: regulation of inflammation, synaptic connectivity, programmed cell death, wiring and circuitry formation, phagocytosis of cell debris, and synaptic pruning and sculpting of postnatal neural circuits. Moreover, microglia contribute to some neurodevelopmental disorders such as Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD), and to aged-associated neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and others. There is evidence that human and rodent microglia may become senescent. This event determines alterations in the microglia activation status, associated with a chronic inflammation phenotype and with the loss of neuroprotective functions that lead to a greater susceptibility to the neurodegenerative diseases of aging. In the central nervous system (CNS), Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2-DNAX activation protein 12 (TREM2-DAP12) is a signaling complex expressed exclusively in microglia. As a microglial surface receptor, TREM2 interacts with DAP12 to initiate signal transduction pathways that promote microglial cell activation, phagocytosis, and microglial cell survival. Defective TREM2-DAP12 functions play a central role in the pathogenesis of several diseases. The CX3CL1 (fractalkine)-CX3CR1 signaling represents the most important communication channel between neurons and microglia. The expression of CX3CL1 in neurons and of its receptor CX3CR1 in microglia determines a specific interaction, playing fundamental roles in the regulation of the maturation and function of these cells. Here, we review the role of the TREM2-DAP12 and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axes in aged microglia and the involvement of these pathways in physiological CNS aging and in age-associated neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Mecca
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Ileana Giambanco
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Rosario Donato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
- Centro Universitario per la Ricerca sulla Genomica Funzionale, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Cataldo Arcuri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
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57
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Weinhard L, d'Errico P, Leng Tay T. Headmasters: Microglial regulation of learning and memory in health and disease. AIMS MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.3934/molsci.2018.1.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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58
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Lannes N, Eppler E, Etemad S, Yotovski P, Filgueira L. Microglia at center stage: a comprehensive review about the versatile and unique residential macrophages of the central nervous system. Oncotarget 2017; 8:114393-114413. [PMID: 29371994 PMCID: PMC5768411 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia cells are the unique residential macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). They have a special origin, as they derive from the embryonic yolk sac and enter the developing CNS at a very early stage. They play an important role during CNS development and adult homeostasis. They have a major contribution to adult neurogenesis and neuroinflammation. Thus, they participate in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and contribute to aging. They play an important role in sustaining and breaking the blood-brain barrier. As innate immune cells, they contribute substantially to the immune response against infectious agents affecting the CNS. They play also a major role in the growth of tumours of the CNS. Microglia are consequently the key cell population linking the nervous and the immune system. This review covers all different aspects of microglia biology and pathology in a comprehensive way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lannes
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth Eppler
- Pestalozzistrasse Zo, Department of BioMedicine, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Samar Etemad
- Building 71/218 RBWH Herston, Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, QLD 4029 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Peter Yotovski
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Luis Filgueira
- Albert Gockel, Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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59
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Abstract
Microglial cells are the resident tissue macrophages of the CNS and are widely recognized for their immune surveillance of the healthy CNS. In addition to this well-accepted function, recent findings point to major roles for microglia in instructing and regulating the proper function of the neuronal networks in the adult CNS, but these cells are also involved in creating neuronal networks by orchestrating construction of the whole network during development. In this Review, we highlight recent findings about the steady-state functions of microglial cells, the factors that are important for physiological microglial function, and how microglia help to maintain tissue homeostasis in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Kierdorf
- Department of Life Sciences and MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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60
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Ardura-Fabregat A, Boddeke EWGM, Boza-Serrano A, Brioschi S, Castro-Gomez S, Ceyzériat K, Dansokho C, Dierkes T, Gelders G, Heneka MT, Hoeijmakers L, Hoffmann A, Iaccarino L, Jahnert S, Kuhbandner K, Landreth G, Lonnemann N, Löschmann PA, McManus RM, Paulus A, Reemst K, Sanchez-Caro JM, Tiberi A, Van der Perren A, Vautheny A, Venegas C, Webers A, Weydt P, Wijasa TS, Xiang X, Yang Y. Targeting Neuroinflammation to Treat Alzheimer's Disease. CNS Drugs 2017; 31:1057-1082. [PMID: 29260466 PMCID: PMC5747579 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-017-0483-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Over the past few decades, research on Alzheimer's disease (AD) has focused on pathomechanisms linked to two of the major pathological hallmarks of extracellular deposition of beta-amyloid peptides and intra-neuronal formation of neurofibrils. Recently, a third disease component, the neuroinflammatory reaction mediated by cerebral innate immune cells, has entered the spotlight, prompted by findings from genetic, pre-clinical, and clinical studies. Various proteins that arise during neurodegeneration, including beta-amyloid, tau, heat shock proteins, and chromogranin, among others, act as danger-associated molecular patterns, that-upon engagement of pattern recognition receptors-induce inflammatory signaling pathways and ultimately lead to the production and release of immune mediators. These may have beneficial effects but ultimately compromise neuronal function and cause cell death. The current review, assembled by participants of the Chiclana Summer School on Neuroinflammation 2016, provides an overview of our current understanding of AD-related immune processes. We describe the principal cellular and molecular players in inflammation as they pertain to AD, examine modifying factors, and discuss potential future therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Ardura-Fabregat
- grid.5963.9Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - E. W. G. M. Boddeke
- 0000 0004 0407 1981grid.4830.fDepartment of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - A. Boza-Serrano
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - S. Brioschi
- grid.5963.9Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - S. Castro-Gomez
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - K. Ceyzériat
- grid.457334.2Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Département de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Institut de biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ,0000 0001 2171 2558grid.5842.bNeurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199, F-92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - C. Dansokho
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - T. Dierkes
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany ,0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dBiomedical Centre, Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - G. Gelders
- 0000 0001 0668 7884grid.5596.fDepartment of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael T. Heneka
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany ,0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - L. Hoeijmakers
- 0000000084992262grid.7177.6Center for Neuroscience (SILS-CNS), Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A. Hoffmann
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - L. Iaccarino
- grid.15496.3fVita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy ,0000000417581884grid.18887.3eIn Vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - S. Jahnert
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - K. Kuhbandner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - G. Landreth
- 0000 0001 2287 3919grid.257413.6Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
| | - N. Lonnemann
- 0000 0001 1090 0254grid.6738.aDepartment of Cellular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - R. M. McManus
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Paulus
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - K. Reemst
- 0000000084992262grid.7177.6Center for Neuroscience (SILS-CNS), Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J. M. Sanchez-Caro
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Tiberi
- grid.6093.cBio@SNS Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - A. Van der Perren
- 0000 0001 0668 7884grid.5596.fDepartment of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - A. Vautheny
- grid.457334.2Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Département de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Institut de biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ,0000 0001 2171 2558grid.5842.bNeurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199, F-92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - C. Venegas
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Webers
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - P. Weydt
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - T. S. Wijasa
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - X. Xiang
- 0000 0004 1936 973Xgrid.5252.0Biomedical Center (BMC), Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany ,0000 0004 1936 973Xgrid.5252.0Graduate School of Systemic Neuroscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, 82152 Munich, Germany
| | - Y. Yang
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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