A dual role of p21 in stem cell aging

Determining the influence of telomere dysfunction and DNA damage on stem and progenitor cell aging: what markers can we use?

The decline in organ maintenance and function is one of the major problems limiting quality of life during aging. The accumulation of telomere dysfunction and DNA damage appears to be one of the underlying causes. Uncapping of chromosome ends in response to critical telomere shortening limits the proliferative capacity of human cells by activation of DNA damage checkpoints inducing senescence or apoptosis. Telomere shortening occurs in the vast majority of human tissues during aging and in chronic diseases that increase the rate of cell turnover. There is emerging evidence that telomere shortening can limit the maintenance and function of adult stem cells -- a cell type of utmost importance for organ maintenance and regeneration. In mouse models, telomere dysfunction leads to a depletion of adult stem cell compartments suggesting that stem cells are very sensitive to DNA damage. Both the rarity of stem and progenitor cells in adult organs and their removal in response to damage make it difficult to assess the impact of telomere dysfunction and DNA damage on stem and progenitor cell aging. Such approaches require the development of sensitive biomarkers recognizing low levels of telomere dysfunction and DNA damage in stem and progenitor cells. Here, we review experimental data on the prevalence of telomere dysfunction and DNA damage during aging and its possible impact on stem and progenitor cell aging.

Sirtuin 1, stem cells, aging, and stem cell aging

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

New discoveries focused on mitochondrial metabolism and gene silencing and their regulation by the sirtuin family of protein deacetylases is stimulating new ideas on how to improve geriatric medicine. Information about sertuins in stem cell biology is scarce. We consider recent information on sirtuin 1, its role in aging and metabolism in several species and tissues, and attempt to anticipate how it might influence stem cell aging.

RECENT FINDINGS

Calorie restriction lengthens lifespan, in part, due to mitochondrial metabolism reorganization through sirtuin 1/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-coactivator-1alpha-regulated mitochondrial biogenesis. This reduces radical oxygen species levels that cause macromolecule damage, a major contributor to aging. Little is known about these processes in stem cells, whose longevity is implicated in human aging. Recent work indicates that sirtuin 1 influences growth-factor responses and maintenance of stem cells. Sirtuin 1 is required for calorie restriction-induced lifespan extension in mice, and calorie restriction upregulates sirtuin 1 in humans. Sirtuin 1 also appears to influence lineage/cell-fate decisions of stem cells via redox status.

SUMMARY

The same thermodynamic and biochemical mechanisms linked to aging in somatic cells may also work in stem cells. Developments in mitochondrial biology and new drug development based on this knowledge are finding their way into the clinic (i.e. diabetes) and may illuminate new ways of manipulating and using stem cells in medicine.

DNA mismatch repair: molecular mechanism, cancer, and ageing

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) proteins are ubiquitous players in a diverse array of important cellular functions. In its role in post-replication repair, MMR safeguards the genome correcting base mispairs arising as a result of replication errors. Loss of MMR results in greatly increased rates of spontaneous mutation in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. Mutations in MMR genes cause hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, and loss of MMR is associated with a significant fraction of sporadic cancers. Given its prominence in mutation avoidance and its ability to target a range of DNA lesions, MMR has been under investigation in studies of ageing mechanisms. This review summarizes what is known about the molecular details of the MMR pathway and the role of MMR proteins in cancer susceptibility and ageing.

Cigarette smoke triggers code red: p21CIP1/WAF1/SDI1 switches on danger responses in the lung

The article by Yao and coworkers in this issue (Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2008;39:7-18) reveals that the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21CIP1/WAF1/SDI1 (designated hereafter as p21), which has been linked to cell cycle growth arrest due to stress or danger cell responses, may modulate alveolar inflammation and alveolar destruction, and thus enlightens our present understanding of how the lung senses injury due to cigarette smoke and integrates these responses with those that activate inflammatory pathways potentially harmful to the lung. Furthermore, the interplay of p21 and cellular processes involving cell senescence and the imbalance of cell proliferation/apoptosis may provide us with a more logical explanation of how p21, acting as a sensor of cellular stress, might have such potent and wide roles in lung responses triggered by cigarette smoke. Molecular switches, ontologically designed for the protection of the host, are now hijacked by injurious stresses (such as cigarette smoke), leading to organ damage.

Telomeres, senescence, and hematopoietic stem cells

The replicative lifespan of normal somatic cells is restricted by the erosion of telomeres, which are protective caps at the ends of linear chromosomes. The loss of telomeres induces antiproliferative signals that eventually lead to cellular senescence. The enzyme complex telomerase can maintain telomeres, but its expression is confined to highly proliferative cells such as stem cells and tumor cells. The immense regenerative capacity of the hematopoietic system is provided by a distinct type of adult stem cell: hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Although blood cells have to be produced continuously throughout life, the HSC pool seems not to be spared by aging processes. Indeed, limited expression of telomerase is not sufficient to prevent telomere shortening in these cells, which is thought ultimately to limit their proliferative capacity. In this review, we discuss the relevance of telomere maintenance for the hematopoietic stem cell compartment and consider potential functions of telomerase in this context. We also present possible clinical applications of telomere manipulation in HSCs and new insights affecting the aging of the hematopoietic stem cell pool and replicative exhaustion.