Imaging through turbid layers by scanning the phase conjugated second harmonic radiation from a nanoparticle

Exploiting scattering media for exploring 3D objects

Scattering media, such as diffused glass and biological tissue, are usually treated as obstacles in imaging. To cope with the random phase introduced by a turbid medium, most existing imaging techniques recourse to either phase compensation by optical means or phase recovery using iterative algorithms, and their applications are often limited to two-dimensional imaging. In contrast, we utilize the scattering medium as an unconventional imaging lens and exploit its lens-like properties for lensless three-dimensional (3D) imaging with diffraction-limited resolution. Our spatially incoherent lensless imaging technique is simple and capable of variable focusing with adjustable depths of focus that enables depth sensing of 3D objects that are concealed by the diffusing medium. Wide-field imaging with diffraction-limited resolution is verified experimentally by a single-shot recording of the 1951 USAF resolution test chart, and 3D imaging and depth sensing are demonstrated by shifting focus over axially separated objects.

Focusing light inside dynamic scattering media with millisecond digital optical phase conjugation

Wavefront shaping based on digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) focuses light through or inside scattering media, but the low speed of DOPC prevents it from being applied to thick, living biological tissue. Although a fast DOPC approach was recently developed, the reported single-shot wavefront measurement method does not work when the goal is to focus light inside, instead of through, highly scattering media. Here, using a ferroelectric liquid crystal based spatial light modulator, we develop a simpler but faster DOPC system that focuses light not only through, but also inside scattering media. By controlling 2.6 × 105 optical degrees of freedom, our system focused light through 3 mm thick moving chicken tissue, with a system latency of 3.0 ms. Using ultrasound-guided DOPC, along with a binary wavefront measurement method, our system focused light inside a scattering medium comprising moving tissue with a latency of 6.0 ms, which is one to two orders of magnitude shorter than those of previous digital wavefront shaping systems. Since the demonstrated speed approaches tissue decorrelation rates, this work is an important step toward in vivo deep-tissue non-invasive optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy.

Sub-Nyquist sampling boosts targeted light transport through opaque scattering media

Optical time-reversal techniques are being actively developed to focus light through or inside opaque scattering media. When applied to biological tissue, these techniques promise to revolutionize biophotonics by enabling deep-tissue non-invasive optical imaging, optogenetics, optical tweezing, and phototherapy. In all previous optical time-reversal experiments, the scattered light field was well-sampled during wavefront measurement and wavefront reconstruction, following the Nyquist sampling criterion. Here, we overturn this conventional practice by demonstrating that even when the scattered field is under-sampled, light can still be focused through or inside scattering media. Even more surprisingly, we show both theoretically and experimentally that the focus achieved by under-sampling can be one order of magnitude brighter than that achieved under the well-sampling conditions used in previous works, where 3×3 to 5×5 pixels were used to sample one speckle grain on average. Moreover, sub-Nyquist sampling improves the signal-to-noise ratio and the collection efficiency of the scattered light. We anticipate that this newly explored under-sampling scheme will transform the understanding of optical time reversal and boost the performance of optical imaging, manipulation, and communication through opaque scattering media.

Focusing light through biological tissue and tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm in thickness with digital optical phase conjugation

Optical phase conjugation (OPC)-based wavefront shaping techniques focus light through or within scattering media, which is critically important for deep-tissue optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, to date, the sample thickness in OPC experiments has been limited to only a few millimeters. Here, by using a laser with a long coherence length and an optimized digital OPC system that can safely deliver more light power, we focused 532-nm light through tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm thick, as well as through ex vivo chicken breast tissue up to 2.5 cm thick. Our results demonstrate that OPC can be achieved even when photons have experienced on average 1000 scattering events. The demonstrated penetration of nearly 10 cm (∼100 transport mean free paths) has never been achieved before by any optical focusing technique, and it shows the promise of OPC for deep-tissue noninvasive optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy.

Optical phase conjugation assisted scattering lens: variable focusing and 3D patterning

Variable light focusing is the ability to flexibly select the focal distance of a lens. This feature presents technical challenges, but is significant for optical interrogation of three-dimensional objects. Numerous lens designs have been proposed to provide flexible light focusing, including zoom, fluid, and liquid-crystal lenses. Although these lenses are useful for macroscale applications, they have limited utility in micron-scale applications due to restricted modulation range and exacting requirements for fabrication and control. Here, we present a holographic focusing method that enables variable light focusing without any physical modification to the lens element. In this method, a scattering layer couples low-angle (transverse wave vector) components into a full angular spectrum, and a digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) system characterizes and plays back the wavefront that focuses through the scattering layer. We demonstrate micron-scale light focusing and patterning over a wide range of focal distances of 22-51 mm. The interferometric nature of the focusing scheme also enables an aberration-free scattering lens. The proposed method provides a unique variable focusing capability for imaging thick specimens or selective photoactivation of neuronal networks.

Focusing light through scattering media by full-polarization digital optical phase conjugation

Digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) is an emerging technique for focusing light through or within scattering media such as biological tissue. Since DOPC systems are based on time reversal, they benefit from collecting as much information about the scattered light as possible. However, existing DOPC techniques record and subsequently phase-conjugate the scattered light in only a single-polarization state, limited by the operating principle of spatial light modulators. Here, we develop the first, to the best of our knowledge, full-polarization DOPC system that records and phase-conjugates scattered light along two orthogonal polarizations. When focusing light through thick scattering media, such as 2 mm and 4 mm-thick chicken breast tissue, our full-polarization DOPC system on average doubles the focal peak-to-background ratio achieved by single-polarization DOPC systems and improves the phase-conjugation fidelity.

Photoacoustics with coherent light

Since its introduction in the mid-nineties, photoacoustic imaging of biological tissue has been one of the fastest growing biomedical imaging modality, and its basic principles are now considered as well established. In particular, light propagation in photoacoustic imaging is generally considered from the perspective of transport theory. However, recent breakthroughs in optics have shown that coherent light propagating through optically scattering medium could be manipulated towards novel imaging approaches. In this article, we first provide an introduction to the relevant concepts in the field, and then review the recent works showing that it is possible to exploit the coherence of light in conjunction with photoacoustics. We illustrate how the photoacoustic effect can be used as a powerful feedback mechanism for optical wavefront shaping in complex media, and conversely show how the coherence of light can be exploited to enhance photoacoustic imaging, for instance in terms of spatial resolution or for designing minimally invasive endoscopic devices. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and perspectives down the road towards practical applications in the field of photoacoustic imaging.

Image signal transmission with Airy beams

We propose and demonstrate an approach for image signal transmission based on self-accelerating Airy beams. The spatial information is encoded in the Fourier space through a 4-f telescope system, which can circumvent obstacles to realize a self-bending signal transmission. Furthermore, the information can be retrieved from the Airy beams after propagation through a disordered scattering medium. Our experimental results agree well with theoretical predictions.

Interferometric velocity measurements through a fluctuating phase boundary using two Fresnel guide stars

Laser optical techniques are widely used for flow measurements as they offer a high spatial and velocity resolution. However, undisturbed optical access to the measurement volume is desired. In order to measure through a fluctuating phase boundary, we present the use of adaptive optics. In an experiment, we prove that the Fresnel reflex of a phase boundary can be used as a proper guide star for adaptive velocity measurements with a single optical access. Interferometric flow measurements through a fluctuating phase boundary have been accomplished by a Mach-Zehnder interferometer.

3D imaging in volumetric scattering media using phase-space measurements

We demonstrate the use of phase-space imaging for 3D localization of multiple point sources inside scattering material. The effect of scattering is to spread angular (spatial frequency) information, which can be measured by phase space imaging. We derive a multi-slice forward model for homogenous volumetric scattering, then develop a reconstruction algorithm that exploits sparsity in order to further constrain the problem. By using 4D measurements for 3D reconstruction, the dimensionality mismatch provides significant robustness to multiple scattering, with either static or dynamic diffusers. Experimentally, our high-resolution 4D phase-space data is collected by a spectrogram setup, with results successfully recovering the 3D positions of multiple LEDs embedded in turbid scattering media.

In vivo neuroimaging through the highly scattering tissue via iterative multi-photon adaptive compensation technique

For in vivo deep tissue imaging, high order wavefront measurement and correction is needed for handling the severe wavefront distortion. Towards such a goal, we have developed the iterative multi-photon adaptive compensation technique (IMPACT). In this work, we explore using IMPACT to perform calcium imaging of neocortex through the intact skull of adult mice, and to image through the highly scattering white matter on the hippocampus surface.

Time-reversed adapted-perturbation (TRAP) optical focusing onto dynamic objects inside scattering media

The ability to steer and focus light inside scattering media has long been sought for a multitude of applications. To form optical foci inside scattering media, the only feasible strategy at present is to guide photons by using either implanted¹ or virtual^2-4 guide stars, which can be inconvenient and limits potential applications. Here, we report a scheme for focusing light inside scattering media by employing intrinsic dynamics as guide stars. By time-reversing the perturbed component of the scattered light adaptively, we show that it is possible to focus light to the origin of the perturbation. Using the approach, we demonstrate non-invasive dynamic light focusing onto moving targets and imaging of a time-variant object obscured by highly scattering media. Anticipated applications include imaging and photoablation of angiogenic vessels in tumours as well as other biomedical uses.

Lensless imaging through thin diffusive media

Objects imaged through thin scattering media can be reconstructed with the knowledge of the complex transmission function of the diffuser. We demonstrate image reconstruction of static and dynamic objects with numerical phase conjugation in a lensless setup. Data is acquired by single shot intensity capture of an object coherently illuminated and obscured by an inhomogeneous medium, i.e. light diffracted at a specimen is scattered by a polycarbonate diffuser and the resulting speckle field is recorded. As a preparational step, which has to be performed only one time before imaging, the complex speckle field diffracted by the diffuser to the camera chip is measured interferometrically, which allows to reconstruct the transmission function of the diffuser. After insertion of the specimen, the speckle field in the camera plane changes, and the complex field of the sample can be reconstructed from the new intensity distribution. After initial interferometric measurement of the diffuser field, the method is robust with respect to a subsequent misalignment of the diffuser. The method can be extended to image objects placed between a pair of thin scattering plates. Since the object information is contained in a single speckle intensity pattern, it is possible to image dynamic processes at video rate.

A self-adaptive method for creating high efficiency communication channels through random scattering media

Controlling the propagation of electromagnetic waves is important to a broad range of applications. Recent advances in controlling wave propagation in random scattering media have enabled optical focusing and imaging inside random scattering media. In this work, we propose and demonstrate a new method to deliver optical power more efficiently through scattering media. Drastically different from the random matrix characterization approach, our method can rapidly establish high efficiency communication channels using just a few measurements, regardless of the number of optical modes, and provides a practical and robust solution to boost the signal levels in optical or short wave communications. We experimentally demonstrated analog and digital signal transmission through highly scattering media with greatly improved performance. Besides scattering, our method can also reduce the loss of signal due to absorption. Experimentally, we observed that our method forced light to go around absorbers, leading to even higher signal improvement than in the case of purely scattering media. Interestingly, the resulting signal improvement is highly directional, which provides a new means against eavesdropping.

Probing rotational and translational diffusion of nanodoublers in living cells on microsecond time scales

Nonlinear microscopes have seen an increase in popularity in the life sciences due to their molecular and structural specificity, high resolution, large penetration depth, and volumetric imaging capability. Nonetheless, the inherently weak optical signals demand long exposure times for live cell imaging. Here, by modifying the optical layout and illumination parameters, we can follow the rotation and translation of noncentrosymetric crystalline particles, or nanodoublers, with 50 μs acquisition times in living cells. The rotational diffusion can be derived from variations in the second harmonic intensity that originates from the rotation of the nanodoubler crystal axis. We envisage that by capitalizing on the biocompatibility, functionalizability, stability, and nondestructive optical response of the nanodoublers, novel insights on cellular dynamics are within reach.

Light focusing and two-dimensional imaging through scattering media using the photoacoustic transmission matrix with an ultrasound array

We implement the photoacoustic transmission matrix approach on a two-dimensional photoacoustic imaging system, using a 15 MHz linear ultrasound array. Using a black leaf skeleton as a complex absorbing structure, we demonstrate that the photoacoustic transmission matrix approach allows to reveal structural features that are invisible in conventional photoacoustic images, as well as to selectively control light focusing on absorbing targets, leading to a local enhancement of the photoacoustic signal.

Estimating wide-angle, spatially varying reflectance using time-resolved inversion of backscattered light

Imaging through complex media is a well-known challenge, as scattering distorts a signal and invalidates imaging equations. For coherent imaging, the input field can be reconstructed using phase conjugation or knowledge of the complex transmission matrix. However, for incoherent light, wave interference methods are limited to small viewing angles. On the other hand, time-resolved methods do not rely on signal or object phase correlations, making them suitable for reconstructing wide-angle, larger-scale objects. Previously, a time-resolved technique was demonstrated for uniformly reflecting objects. Here, we generalize the technique to reconstruct the spatially varying reflectance of shapes hidden by angle-dependent diffuse layers. The technique is a noninvasive method of imaging three-dimensional objects without relying on coherence. For a given diffuser, ultrafast measurements are used in a convex optimization program to reconstruct a wide-angle, three-dimensional reflectance function. The method has potential use for biological imaging and material characterization.

Deep UV generation and direct DNA photo-interaction by harmonic nanoparticles in labelled samples

A biophotonics approach based on the nonlinear optical process of second harmonic generation is presented and demonstrated on malignant human cell lines labelled by harmonic nanoparticles. The method enables independent imaging and therapeutic action, selecting each modality by simply tuning the excitation laser wavelength from infrared to visible. In particular, the generation of deep ultraviolet radiation at 270 nm allows direct interaction with nuclear DNA in the absence of photosensitizing molecules.

Imaging blood cells through scattering biological tissue using speckle scanning microscopy

We demonstrate imaging of blood cells enclosed in chicken skin tissue using speckle scanning microscopy (SSM). Clear images of multiple cells were obtained with subcellular resolution and good image fidelity, provided that the object dimension was smaller than the maximum scanning range of the speckle pattern. These results point to the potential and the challenges of using SSM technique for biological imaging.

Direct imaging of fluorescent structures behind turbid layers

We present a method to directly image fluorescent structures inside turbid media. This is based on wave-front shaping to optimize the scattered light onto a single fluorescent particle, as the optical memory effect for a scanning image of the surroundings of this particle. We show that iterating the optimization leads to the focusing on a single particle whose surroundings are subsequently scanned. In combination with a parabolic phase pattern, this method can be extended to a three dimensional imaging method inside turbid media.

Digital optical phase conjugation for delivering two-dimensional images through turbid media

Optical transmission through complex media such as biological tissue is fundamentally limited by multiple light scattering. Precise control of the optical wavefield potentially holds the key to advancing a broad range of light-based techniques and applications for imaging or optical delivery. We present a simple and robust digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) implementation for suppressing multiple light scattering. Utilizing wavefront shaping via a spatial light modulator (SLM), we demonstrate its turbidity-suppression capability by reconstructing the image of a complex two-dimensional wide-field target through a highly scattering medium. Employing an interferometer with a Sagnac-like ring design, we successfully overcome the challenging alignment and wavefront-matching constraints in DOPC, reflecting the requirement that the forward- and reverse-propagation paths through the turbid medium be identical. By measuring the output response to digital distortion of the SLM write pattern, we validate the sub-wavelength sensitivity of the system.

Second-harmonic generation of single BaTiO3 nanoparticles down to 22 nm diameter

We investigate the second-harmonic generation (SHG) signal from single BaTiO3 nanoparticles of diameters varying from 70 nm down to 22 nm with a far-field optical microscope coupled to an infrared femtosecond laser. An atomic force microscope is first used to localize the individual particles and to accurately determine their sizes. Power and polarization-dependent measurements on the individual nanoparticles reveal a diameter range between 30 and 20 nm, where deviations from bulk nonlinear optical properties occur. For 22 nm diameter particles, the tetragonal crystal structure is not applicable anymore and competing effects due to the surface to volume ratio or crystallographic modifications are taking place. The demonstration of SHG from such small nanoparticles opens up the possibilities of using them as bright coherent biomarkers. Moreover, our work shows that measuring the SHG of individual nanoparticles reveals critical material properties, opening up new possibilities to investigate ferroelectricity at the nanoscale.

Seeing through turbidity with harmonic holography [Invited]

The ability to see inside the body noninvasively is indispensable in modern biology and medicine. Optical approaches to such abilities are of rapidly growing interest because of their nonionizing nature and low cost. However, the problem of opacity due to the optical turbidity of tissues must be addressed before optical means become practical. Harmonic holography amalgamates the capability of holographic phase conjugation with the contrast-forming mechanism of second-harmonic generation, which provides a unique opportunity for imaging through a turbid medium. In this review we give accounts of the effort of imaging through turbid media using harmonic holographic phase conjugation.

Nonlinear nanomedecine: harmonic nanoparticles toward targeted diagnosis and therapy

Harmonic nanoparticles were first introduced in 2006 as biomarkers for nonlinear imaging. This review provides a general explanation of the physical mechanism at the basis of this novel approach, highlighting its benefits and the complementarity to fluorescent/luminescent labels. A series of application examples from the very recent literature are reported, ranging from in vitro cell monitoring to the first proofs of in vivo imaging and rare event detection in physiological fluids.

Breaking the spatial resolution barrier via iterative sound-light interaction in deep tissue microscopy

Optical microscopy has so far been restricted to superficial layers, leaving many important biological questions unanswered. Random scattering causes the ballistic focus, which is conventionally used for image formation, to decay exponentially with depth. Optical imaging beyond the ballistic regime has been demonstrated by hybrid techniques that combine light with the deeper penetration capability of sound waves. Deep inside highly scattering media, the sound focus dimensions restrict the imaging resolutions. Here we show that by iteratively focusing light into an ultrasound focus via phase conjugation, we can fundamentally overcome this resolution barrier in deep tissues and at the same time increase the focus to background ratio. We demonstrate fluorescence microscopy beyond the ballistic regime of light with a threefold improved resolution and a fivefold increase in contrast. This development opens up practical high resolution fluorescence imaging in deep tissues.

Fluorescence imaging beyond the ballistic regime by ultrasound pulse guided digital phase conjugation

Fluorescence imaging has revolutionized biomedical research over the past three decades. Its high molecular specificity and unrivaled single molecule level sensitivity have enabled breakthroughs in a variety of research fields. For in vivo applications, its major limitation is the superficial imaging depth as random scattering in biological tissues causes exponential attenuation of the ballistic component of a light wave. Here we present fluorescence imaging beyond the ballistic regime by combining single cycle pulsed ultrasound modulation and digital optical phase conjugation. We demonstrate a near isotropic 3D localized sound-light interaction zone. With the exceptionally high optical gain provided by the digital optical phase conjugation system, we can deliver sufficient optical power to a focus inside highly scattering media for not only fluorescence imaging but also a variety of linear and nonlinear spectroscopy measurements. This technology paves the way for many important applications in both fundamental biology research and clinical studies.

Active spectral filtering through turbid media

We demonstrate controlled wavelength-dependent light focusing through turbid media using wavefront shaping. Due to the dispersion caused by multiple light scattering, light propagation through turbid media can be independently controlled between different wavelengths. Foci with various wavelengths can be generated by applying different optimized wavefronts to a highly scattering layer. Given the linearity of the transmission matrix, multiple foci with different wavelengths can also be simultaneously constructed.

Superpenetration optical microscopy by iterative multiphoton adaptive compensation technique

Biological tissues are rarely transparent, presenting major challenges for deep tissue optical microscopy. The achievable imaging depth is fundamentally limited by wavefront distortions caused by aberration and random scattering. Here, we report an iterative wavefront compensation technique that takes advantage of the nonlinearity of multiphoton signals to determine and compensate for these distortions and to focus light inside deep tissues. Different from conventional adaptive optics methods, this technique can rapidly measure highly complicated wavefront distortions encountered in deep tissue imaging and provide compensations for not only aberration but random scattering. The technique is tested with a variety of highly heterogeneous biological samples including mouse brain tissue, skull, and lymph nodes. We show that high quality three-dimensional imaging can be realized at depths beyond the reach of conventional multiphoton microscopy and adaptive optics methods, albeit over restricted distances for a given correction. Moreover, the required laser excitation power can be greatly reduced in deep tissues, deviating from the power requirement of ballistic light excitation and thus significantly reducing photo damage to the biological tissue.

Scattered light fluorescence microscopy in three dimensions

Recently, we have proposed a method to image fluorescent structures behind turbid layers at diffraction limited resolution using wave-front shaping and the memory effect. However, this was limited to a raster scanning of the wave-front shaped focus to a two dimensional plane. In applications, it can however be of great importance to be able to scan a three dimensional volume. Here we show that this can be implemented in the same setup. This is achieved by the addition of a parabolic phase shift to the shaped wave-front. Via the memory effect, this phase shift leads to a shift of the interference based focus in the z-direction, thus opening the possibility of three dimensional imaging using scattered light fluorescence microscopy. Here, we show an example of such a three dimensional image of fluorescent nano-beads taken behind a turbid layer more than 10 mean free paths thick. Finally, we discuss the differences of the scanning in the z-direction with that in the x-y plane and the corresponding possibilities and limitations of the technique.

Three-dimensional scanning microscopy through thin turbid media

We demonstrate three-dimensional imaging through a thin turbid medium using digital phase conjugation of the second harmonic signal emitted from a beacon nanoparticle. The digitally phase-conjugated focus scans the volume in the vicinity of its initial position through numerically manipulated phase patterns projected onto the spatial light modulator. Accurate three dimensional images of a fluorescent sample placed behind a turbid medium are obtained.

High-speed scattering medium characterization with application to focusing light through turbid media

We introduce a phase-control holographic technique to characterize scattering media with the purpose of focusing light through it. The system generates computer-generated holograms implemented via a deformable mirror device (DMD) based on micro-electro-mechanical technology. The DMD can be updated at high data rates, enabling high speed wavefront measurements using the transmission matrix method. The transmission matrix of a scattering material determines the hologram required for focusing through the scatterer. We demonstrate this technique measuring a transmission matrix with 256 input modes and a single output mode in 33.8 ms and creating a focus with a signal to background ratio of 160. We also demonstrate focusing through a temporally dynamic, strongly scattering sample with short speckle decorrelation times.

Imaging with second-harmonic radiation probes in living tissue

We demonstrate that second-harmonic radiation imaging probes are efficient biomarkers for imaging in living tissue. We show that 100 nm and 300 nm BaTiO(3) nanoparticles used as contrast markers could be detected through 50 μm and 120 μm of mouse tail tissue in vitro or in vivo. Experimental results and Monte-Carlo simulations are in good agreement.

Scattering lens resolves sub-100 nm structures with visible light

The smallest structures that conventional lenses are able to optically resolve are of the order of 200 nm. We introduce a new type of lens that exploits multiple scattering of light to generate a scanning nanosized optical focus. With an experimental realization of this lens in gallium phosphide we imaged gold nanoparticles at 97 nm optical resolution. Our work is the first lens that provides a resolution better than 100 nm at visible wavelengths.

Focusing light through random photonic media by binary amplitude modulation

We study the focusing of light through random photonic materials using wavefront shaping. We explore a novel approach namely binary amplitude modulation. To this end, the light incident to a random photonic medium is spatially divided into a number of segments. We identify the segments that give rise to fields that are out of phase with the total field at the intended focus and assign these a zero amplitude, whereas the remaining segments maintain their original amplitude. Using 812 independently controlled segments of light, we find the intensity at the target to be 75±6 times enhanced over the average intensity behind the sample. We experimentally demonstrate focusing of light through random photonic media using both an amplitude only mode liquid crystal spatial light modulator and a MEMS-based spatial light modulator. Our use of Micro Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS)-based digital micromirror devices for the control of the incident light field opens an avenue to high speed implementations of wavefront shaping.