51
|
Massen JJM, Lambert M, Schiestl M, Bugnyar T. Subadult ravens generally don't transfer valuable tokens to conspecifics when there is nothing to gain for themselves. Front Psychol 2015; 6:885. [PMID: 26175703 PMCID: PMC4484978 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent to which humans help each other is extraordinary in itself, and difficult to explain from an evolutionary perspective. Therefore, there has been a recent surge in studies investigating the evolution of prosocial behavior using a comparative approach. Nevertheless, most of these studies have focused on primates only, and little is known about other animal orders. In a previous study, common ravens (Corvus corax) have been shown to be indifferent to the gains of conspecifics. However, this may have been due to the experimental set-up, as many studies that use different set-ups report conflicting results within the same species. We therefore tested ravens' prosocial tendencies in a different set-up; i.e., we tested whether sub-adult ravens would transfer a token to a partner and, thereby, provide the partner with the opportunity to exchange a token for a reward. To control and test for effects of partner identity, we tested eight individuals both in a dyadic and in a group setting. Our results show that in general the ravens in our experiment did not show other-regarding preferences. However, some acts of helping did occur spontaneously. We discuss what could be the causes for those sporadic instances, and why in general prosocial tendencies were found to be almost lacking among the ravens in this set-up.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorg J M Massen
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna Vienna, Austria
| | - Megan Lambert
- Department of Psychology, University of York York, UK
| | - Martina Schiestl
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna Vienna, Austria ; Haidlhof Research Station, University of Vienna and University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Bugnyar
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna Vienna, Austria ; Haidlhof Research Station, University of Vienna and University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Chimpanzees’ Bystander Reactions to Infanticide. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2015; 26:143-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s12110-015-9228-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
53
|
Moore R, Call J, Tomasello M. Production and Comprehension of Gestures between Orang-Utans (Pongo pygmaeus) in a Referential Communication Game. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129726. [PMID: 26091358 PMCID: PMC4474718 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Orang-utans played a communication game in two studies testing their ability to produce and comprehend requestive pointing. While the ‘communicator’ could see but not obtain hidden food, the ‘donor’ could release the food to the communicator, but could not see its location for herself. They could coordinate successfully if the communicator pointed to the food, and if the donor comprehended his communicative goal and responded pro-socially. In Study 1, one orang-utan pointed regularly and accurately for peers. However, they responded only rarely. In Study 2, a human experimenter played the communicator’s role in three conditions, testing the apes’ comprehension of points of different heights and different degrees of ostension. There was no effect of condition. However, across conditions one donor performed well individually, and as a group orang-utans’ comprehension performance tended towards significance. We explain this on the grounds that comprehension required inferences that they found difficult – but not impossible. The finding has valuable implications for our thinking about the development of pointing in phylogeny.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Moore
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Josep Call
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, Scotland
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Saxony, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Márquez C, Rennie SM, Costa DF, Moita MA. Prosocial Choice in Rats Depends on Food-Seeking Behavior Displayed by Recipients. Curr Biol 2015; 25:1736-45. [PMID: 26051895 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Animals often are prosocial, displaying behaviors that result in a benefit to one another [1-15] even in the absence of self-benefit [16-21] (but see [22-25]). Several factors have been proposed to modulate these behaviors, namely familiarity [6, 13, 18, 20] or display of seeking behavior [16, 21]. Rats have been recently shown to be prosocial under distress [17, 18] (but see [26-29]); however, what drives prosociality in these animals remains unclear. To address this issue, we developed a two-choice task in which prosocial behavior did not yield a benefit or a cost to the focal rat. We used a double T-maze in which only the focal rat controlled access to the food-baited arms of its own and the recipient rat's maze. In this task, the focal rat could choose between one side of the maze, which yielded food only to itself (selfish choice), and the opposite side, which yielded food to itself and the recipient rat (prosocial choice). Rats showed a high proportion of prosocial choices. By manipulating reward delivery to the recipient and its ability to display a preference for the baited arm, we found that the display of food-seeking behavior leading to reward was necessary to drive prosocial choices. In addition, we found that there was more social investigation between rats in selfish trials than in prosocial trials, which may have influenced the focals' choices. This study shows that rats provide access to food to others in the absence of added direct self-benefit, bringing new insights into the factors that drive prosociality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Márquez
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasilia, Lisbon 1400-038, Portugal.
| | - Scott M Rennie
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasilia, Lisbon 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Diana F Costa
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasilia, Lisbon 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Marta A Moita
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasilia, Lisbon 1400-038, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Tatone D, Geraci A, Csibra G. Giving and taking: representational building blocks of active resource-transfer events in human infants. Cognition 2015; 137:47-62. [PMID: 25614012 PMCID: PMC4641319 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Active resource transfer is a pervasive and distinctive feature of human sociality. We hypothesized that humans possess an action schema of giving specific for representing social interactions based on material exchange, and specified the set of necessary assumptions about giving events that this action schema should be equipped with. We tested this proposal by investigating how 12-month-old infants interpret abstract resource-transfer events. Across eight looking-time studies using a violation-of-expectation paradigm we found that infants were able to distinguish between kinematically identical giving and taking actions. Despite the surface similarity between these two actions, only giving was represented as an object-mediated social interaction. While we found no evidence that infants expected the target of a giving or taking action to reciprocate, the present results suggest that infants interpret giving as an inherently social action, which they can possibly use to map social relations via observing resource-transfer episodes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denis Tatone
- Cognitive Development Center, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Alessandra Geraci
- Cognitive Development Center, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary; Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Gergely Csibra
- Cognitive Development Center, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary; Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Orangutans (Pongo spp.) do not spontaneously share benefits with familiar conspecifics in a choice paradigm. Primates 2015; 56:193-200. [PMID: 25739582 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-015-0460-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Humans are thought to be unique in their ability to help others voluntarily even though it may sometimes incur substantial costs. However, there are a growing number of studies showing that prosocial behaviors can be observed, not only in humans, but also among nonhuman primates that live in complex social groups. Prosociality has often been described as a major factor that facilitates group living. Nonetheless, it has seldom been explored whether solitary living primates, such as orangutans, share this propensity. In the present study, we tested four captive orangutans (Pongo abelii × pigmaeus, Pongo pigmaeus) in a simple food-delivering task. They had a choice, incurring the same cost, between getting a food reward for themselves and providing an additional food reward to a conspecific recipient passively sitting in an adjacent booth. Two orangutans played the actor's role, and two orangutans participated as recipients. The results showed that the actors did not choose to deliver food to the recipients more often than expected by chance (51.3 % on average). The control condition demonstrated that this tendency was independent of the actor's understanding of the task. These findings suggest that orangutans do not spontaneously share benefits with other conspecifics, even when the prosocial choice does not disadvantage them. This study gives the first experimental evidence that socially housed captive orangutans do not behave prosocially in a choice paradigm experiment. Further studies using a different experimental paradigm should be conducted to examine whether this tendency is consistent with previous findings hypothesizing that the enhanced prosocial propensity shown in humans and other group living primates is an evolutionary outcome of living in complex social environments.
Collapse
|
57
|
|
58
|
Scott-Phillips TC. Nonhuman Primate Communication, Pragmatics, and the Origins of Language. CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1086/679674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
59
|
Hernandez-Lallement J, van Wingerden M, Marx C, Srejic M, Kalenscher T. Rats prefer mutual rewards in a prosocial choice task. Front Neurosci 2015; 8:443. [PMID: 25642162 PMCID: PMC4296215 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pro-sociality, i.e., the preference for outcomes that produce benefits for other individuals, is ubiquitous in humans. Recently, cross-species comparisons of social behavior have offered important new insights into the evolution of pro-sociality. Here, we present a rodent analog of the Pro-social Choice Task that controls strategic components, de-confounds other-regarding choice motives from the animals' natural tendencies to maximize own food access and directly tests the effect of social context on choice allocation. We trained pairs of rats—an actor and a partner rat—in a double T-maze task where actors decided between two alternatives only differing in the reward delivered to the partner. The “own reward” choice yielded a reward only accessible to the actor whereas the “both reward” choice produced an additional reward for a partner (partner condition) or an inanimate toy (toy Condition), located in an adjacent compartment. We found that actors chose “both reward” at levels above chance and more often in the partner than in the toy condition. Moreover, we show that this choice pattern adapts to the current social context and that the observed behavior is stable over time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julen Hernandez-Lallement
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marijn van Wingerden
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christine Marx
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Milan Srejic
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Tobias Kalenscher
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University of Düsseldorf Düsseldorf, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Kishimoto T, Ando J, Tatara S, Yamada N, Konishi K, Kimura N, Fukumori A, Tomonaga M. Alloparenting for chimpanzee twins. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6306. [PMID: 25200656 PMCID: PMC4158332 DOI: 10.1038/srep06306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In April 2009, a female chimpanzee named Sango, living in a captive group at the Noichi Zoo, Japan, gave birth to dizygotic male-female twin chimpanzees (male: Daiya, female: Sakura). The extent to which adult group members cared for the twins was investigated using a focal animal sampling method targeting six adults (one male) when the twin chimpanzees were two years old. Data were collected for an average of 6.78 h (SD = 0.79) per focal participant. An unaffiliated female adult of Sango was engaged in parenting Sakura as much as Sango. Given that Sakura was in lesser proximity to Sango than Daiya, Sakura's departures from her mother and her ability to gesture requests might have enabled non-kin adults to provide her care.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Kishimoto
- Faculty of Liberal Arts, University of the Sacred Heart, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Juko Ando
- Faculty of Letters, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Seiki Tatara
- Noichi Zoological Park of Kochi Prefecture, Kochi, Japan
| | | | | | - Natsuko Kimura
- Noichi Zoological Park of Kochi Prefecture, Kochi, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
61
|
House BR, Silk JB, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ. Task design influences prosociality in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). PLoS One 2014; 9:e103422. [PMID: 25191860 PMCID: PMC4156467 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimpanzees confer benefits on group members, both in the wild and in captive populations. Experimental studies of how animals allocate resources can provide useful insights about the motivations underlying prosocial behavior, and understanding the relationship between task design and prosocial behavior provides an important foundation for future research exploring these animals' social preferences. A number of studies have been designed to assess chimpanzees' preferences for outcomes that benefit others (prosocial preferences), but these studies vary greatly in both the results obtained and the methods used, and in most cases employ procedures that reduce critical features of naturalistic social interactions, such as partner choice. The focus of the current study is on understanding the link between experimental methodology and prosocial behavior in captive chimpanzees, rather than on describing these animals' social motivations themselves. We introduce a task design that avoids isolating subjects and allows them to freely decide whether to participate in the experiment. We explore key elements of the methods utilized in previous experiments in an effort to evaluate two possibilities that have been offered to explain why different experimental designs produce different results: (a) chimpanzees are less likely to deliver food to others when they obtain food for themselves, and (b) evidence of prosociality may be obscured by more “complex” experimental apparatuses (e.g., those including more components or alternative choices). Our results suggest that the complexity of laboratory tasks may generate observed variation in prosocial behavior in laboratory experiments, and highlights the need for more naturalistic research designs while also providing one example of such a paradigm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bailey R. House
- Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Joan B. Silk
- School of Human Evolution & Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Susan P. Lambeth
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, United States of America
| | - Steven J. Schapiro
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Hobaiter C, Schel AM, Langergraber K, Zuberbühler K. 'Adoption' by maternal siblings in wild chimpanzees. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103777. [PMID: 25084521 PMCID: PMC4118915 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The adoption of unrelated orphaned infants is something chimpanzees and humans have in common. Providing parental care has fitness implications for both the adopter and orphan, and cases of adoption have thus been cited as evidence for a shared origin of an altruistic behaviour. We provide new data on adoptions in the free-living Sonso chimpanzee community in Uganda, together with an analysis of published data from other long-term field sites. As a default pattern, we find that orphan chimpanzees do not become adopted by adult group members but wherever possible associate with each other, usually as maternal sibling pairs. This occurs even if both partners are still immature, with older individuals effectively becoming ‘child household heads’. Adoption of orphans by unrelated individuals does occur but usually only if no maternal siblings or other relatives are present and only after significant delays. In conclusion, following the loss of their mother, orphaned chimpanzees preferentially associate along pre-existing social bonds, which are typically strongest amongst maternal siblings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Hobaiter
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
- * E-mail:
| | - Anne Marijke Schel
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
- Institute Jean Nicod, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Pavillon Jardin, Paris, France
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
| | - Kevin Langergraber
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Klaus Zuberbühler
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchatel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Drayton LA, Santos LR. Insights into Intraspecies Variation in Primate Prosocial Behavior: Capuchins (Cebus apella) Fail to Show Prosociality on a Touchscreen Task. Behav Sci (Basel) 2014; 4:87-101. [PMID: 25379271 PMCID: PMC4219244 DOI: 10.3390/bs4020087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, many researchers have used food donation tasks to test whether nonhuman primates show human-like patterns of prosocial behavior in experimental settings. Although these tasks are elegant in their simplicity, performance within and across species is difficult to explain under a unified theoretical framework. Here, we attempt to better understand variation in prosociality by examining the circumstances that promote and hinder the expression of prosocial preferences. To this end, we tested whether capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)—a species that has previously demonstrated prosocial preferences—would behave prosocially using a novel touchscreen task. In contrast to previous studies, we found that capuchins as a group did not prosocially deliver food to a partner. Importantly however, data from control conditions revealed that subjects demonstrated limited understanding of the reward contingencies of the task. We also compared individuals’ performance in the current study with their performance in a previously published prosociality study. We conclude by discussing how continuing to explore intraspecies variation in performance on prosocial tasks may help inform debates regarding the existence of other-regarding preferences in nonhuman species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey A. Drayton
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-917-348-1655
| | | |
Collapse
|
64
|
Froese T, Leavens DA. The direct perception hypothesis: perceiving the intention of another's action hinders its precise imitation. Front Psychol 2014; 5:65. [PMID: 24600413 PMCID: PMC3927096 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We argue that imitation is a learning response to unintelligible actions, especially to social conventions. Various strands of evidence are converging on this conclusion, but further progress has been hampered by an outdated theory of perceptual experience. Comparative psychology continues to be premised on the doctrine that humans and non-human primates only perceive others' physical "surface behavior," while mental states are perceptually inaccessible. However, a growing consensus in social cognition research accepts the direct perception hypothesis: primarily we see what others aim to do; we do not infer it from their motions. Indeed, physical details are overlooked - unless the action is unintelligible. On this basis we hypothesize that apes' propensity to copy the goal of an action, rather than its precise means, is largely dependent on its perceived intelligibility. Conversely, children copy means more often than adults and apes because, uniquely, much adult human behavior is completely unintelligible to unenculturated observers due to the pervasiveness of arbitrary social conventions, as exemplified by customs, rituals, and languages. We expect the propensity to imitate to be inversely correlated with the familiarity of cultural practices, as indexed by age and/or socio-cultural competence. The direct perception hypothesis thereby helps to parsimoniously explain the most important findings of imitation research, including children's over-imitation and other species-typical and age-related variations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Froese
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Computación, Instituto de Investigaciones en Matemáticas Aplicadas y en Sistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMexico City, Mexico
- Centro de Ciencias de la Complejidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMexico City, Mexico
| | | |
Collapse
|
65
|
Liebal K, Vaish A, Haun D, Tomasello M. Does sympathy motivate prosocial behaviour in great apes? PLoS One 2014; 9:e84299. [PMID: 24416212 PMCID: PMC3885567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prosocial behaviours such as helping, comforting, or sharing are central to human social life. Because they emerge early in ontogeny, it has been proposed that humans are prosocial by nature and that from early on empathy and sympathy motivate such behaviours. The emerging question is whether humans share these abilities to feel with and for someone with our closest relatives, the great apes. Although several studies demonstrated that great apes help others, little is known about their underlying motivations. This study addresses this issue and investigates whether four species of great apes (Pongo pygmaeus, Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus) help a conspecific more after observing the conspecific being harmed (a human experimenter steals the conspecific’s food) compared to a condition where no harming occurred. Results showed that in regard to the occurrence of prosocial behaviours, only orangutans, but not the African great apes, help others when help is needed, contrasting prior findings on chimpanzees. However, with the exception of one population of orangutans that helped significantly more after a conspecific was harmed than when no harm occurred, prosocial behaviour in great apes was not motivated by concern for others.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja Liebal
- Excellence Cluster “Languages of Emotion”, Department of Education and Psychology, Evolutionary Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Amrisha Vaish
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Haun
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Drayton LA, Santos LR. Capuchins' (Cebus apella) sensitivity to others' goal-directed actions in a helping context. Anim Cogn 2013; 17:689-700. [PMID: 24146217 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-013-0700-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
As humans, our ability to help others effectively is at least in part dependent upon our capacity to infer others' goals in a variety of different contexts. Several species of nonhuman primate have demonstrated that they will also help others in some relatively simple situations, but it is not always clear whether this helping is based on an understanding of another agent's goals. Although the results of a number of different studies support the hypothesis that chimpanzees represent others' goals in various helping contexts and are sensitive to these goals when actually helping others, less work has addressed whether more distantly related species actively represent goals when helping. To explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying helping behaviors in species less closely related to humans, we tested whether a species of New World monkey-the brown capuchin (Cebus apella)-would provide an experimenter with a desired out-of-reach object more often than an alternative object when the experimenter attempted to obtain the former object only. We found that capuchins reliably helped by providing the experimenter's goal object (Experiment 1) and that explanations based on the use of several less sophisticated strategies did not account for the overall pattern of data (Experiments 2-4). Results are thus consistent with the hypothesis that capuchins help others based on an understanding of their goals although more work is needed to address the possibility that capuchins may be responding to gestural and postural factors alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey A Drayton
- Psychology Department, Yale University, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA,
| | | |
Collapse
|
67
|
Sebastián-Enesco C, Hernández-Lloreda MV, Colmenares F. Two and a half-year-old children are prosocial even when their partners are not. J Exp Child Psychol 2013; 116:186-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
68
|
Miyabe-Nishiwaki T, Kaneko T, Sakai T, Kaneko A, Watanabe A, Watanabe S, Maeda N, Kumazaki K, Suzuki J, Fujiwara R, Makishima H, Nishimura T, Hayashi M, Tomonaga M, Matsuzawa T, Mikami A. Intracranial arachnoid cysts in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Primates 2013; 55:7-12. [PMID: 24068629 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-013-0384-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An intracranial arachnoid cyst was detected in a 32-year-old, 44.6-kg, female chimpanzee at the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) were performed and the cognitive studies in which she participated were reviewed. MRI revealed that the cyst was present in the chimpanzee's right occipital convexity, and was located in close proximity to the posterior horn of the right lateral ventricle without ventriculomegaly. CT confirmed the presence of the cyst and no apparent signs indicating previous skull fractures were found. The thickness of the mandible was asymmetrical, whereas the temporomandibular joints and dentition were symmetrical. She showed no abnormalities in various cognitive studies since she was 3 years old, except a different behavioural pattern during a recent study, indicating a possible visual field defect. Detailed cognitive studies, long-term observation of her physical condition and follow-up MRI will be continued.
Collapse
|
69
|
|
70
|
Ueno M, Yamada K, Nakamichi M. The effect of solicitations on grooming exchanges among female Japanese macaques at Katsuyama. Primates 2013; 55:81-7. [PMID: 23857145 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-013-0371-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In group-living primates, individuals often exchange grooming with not only kin but also non-kin. We investigated the effect of soliciting behaviors on grooming exchanges in a free-ranging Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) group at Katsuyama. In this study, we used a focal animal sampling method, targeting 14 females. Data were collected for 15.75 ± 2.67 (mean ± SD) hours per focal female. We classified female-female pairs into three pair types: kin pairs, affiliated non-kin pairs, and unaffiliated non-kin pairs. Females received grooming more frequently when they solicited after grooming their partners than when they did not solicit in all pair types. In addition, females received grooming less frequently when they did not groom their unaffiliated non-kin partners before soliciting; prior grooming was not needed to receive grooming from kin or affiliated non-kin partners. The degree of grooming reciprocity did not differ according to the frequency with which females in kin or affiliated non-kin pairs solicited after grooming. On the other hand, grooming reciprocity between unaffiliated non-kin females was more balanced when they solicited frequently after grooming, as compared with when they did not. In conclusion, our study suggests that soliciting behaviors promote grooming exchanges in female Japanese macaques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masataka Ueno
- Department of Ethology, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
71
|
Matsuzawa T. Evolution of the brain and social behavior in chimpanzees. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2013; 23:443-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2012] [Revised: 01/06/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
72
|
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Tomasello
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Amrisha Vaish
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
73
|
Abstract
Humans are thought to possess a unique proclivity to share with others – including strangers. This puzzling phenomenon has led many to suggest that sharing with strangers originates from human-unique language, social norms, warfare and/or cooperative breeding. However, bonobos, our closest living relative, are highly tolerant and, in the wild, are capable of having affiliative interactions with strangers. In four experiments, we therefore examined whether bonobos will voluntarily donate food to strangers. We show that bonobos will forego their own food for the benefit of interacting with a stranger. Their prosociality is in part driven by unselfish motivation, because bonobos will even help strangers acquire out-of-reach food when no desirable social interaction is possible. However, this prosociality has its limitations because bonobos will not donate food in their possession when a social interaction is not possible. These results indicate that other-regarding preferences toward strangers are not uniquely human. Moreover, language, social norms, warfare and cooperative breeding are unnecessary for the evolution of xenophilic sharing. Instead, we propose that prosociality toward strangers initially evolves due to selection for social tolerance, allowing the expansion of individual social networks. Human social norms and language may subsequently extend this ape-like social preference to the most costly contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhi Tan
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America.
| | | |
Collapse
|
74
|
Bullinger AF, Burkart JM, Melis AP, Tomasello M. Bonobos, Pan paniscus, chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, and marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, prefer to feed alone. Anim Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
75
|
Warneken F. Young children proactively remedy unnoticed accidents. Cognition 2012; 126:101-8. [PMID: 23079466 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Human adults will sometimes help without being asked to help, including in situations in which the helpee is oblivious to the problem and thus provides no communicative or behavioral cues that intervention is necessary. Some theoretical models argue that these acts of 'proactive helping' are an important and possibly human-specific form of prosociality. Two experiments examined whether young children proactively help in a situation where an adult did not provide any concurrent behavioral cues that help was needed. Specifically, in Experiment 1 an experimenter either dropped an object without noticing (experimental condition) or on purpose (control). Even though children were bystanders engaged in their own task, they spontaneously intervened by helping instrumentally in the experimental condition in the absence of concurrent behavioral cues from the actor (significantly more often than in the control condition). These acts increased significantly from 21 to 31months of age, probably reflecting children's emerging social-cognitive capacities to represent goal-directed action. Experiment 2 replicated proactive helping in 2-year-olds in a more closely matched comparison in which in both experimental and control conditions the actor did not notice the accident, and children thus had to infer whether help was needed from the actor's previous responses alone. This result shows that children are able to infer a need for intervention on concurrent situational cues, without behavioral or communicative cues by the helpee. These results indicate that proactive prosociality might be a characteristic of early human ontogeny, emerging in children as young as two years of age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Felix Warneken
- Harvard University, Department of Psychology, 33 Kirkland St., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
76
|
A study of sharing and reciprocity in grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Anim Cogn 2012; 16:197-210. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-012-0564-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
77
|
Abstract
The debate about the origins of human prosociality has focused on the presence or absence of similar tendencies in other species, and, recently, attention has turned to the underlying mechanisms. We investigated whether direct reciprocity could promote prosocial behavior in brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Twelve capuchins tested in pairs could choose between two tokens, with one being "prosocial" in that it rewarded both individuals (i.e., 1/1), and the other being "selfish" in that it rewarded the chooser only (i.e., 1/0). Each monkey's choices with a familiar partner from their own group was compared with choices when paired with a partner from a different group. Capuchins were spontaneously prosocial, selecting the prosocial option at the same rate regardless of whether they were paired with an in-group or out-group partner. This indicates that interaction outside of the experimental setting played no role. When the paradigm was changed, such that both partners alternated making choices, prosocial preference significantly increased, leading to mutualistic payoffs. As no contingency could be detected between an individual's choice and their partner's previous choice, and choices occurred in rapid succession, reciprocity seemed of a relatively vague nature akin to mutualism. Having the partner receive a better reward than the chooser (i.e., 1/2) during the alternating condition increased the payoffs of mutual prosociality, and prosocial choice increased accordingly. The outcome of several controls made it hard to explain these results on the basis of reward distribution or learned preferences, and rather suggested that joint action promotes prosociality, resulting in so-called attitudinal reciprocity.
Collapse
|
78
|
|
79
|
Schwab C, Swoboda R, Kotrschal K, Bugnyar T. Recipients affect prosocial and altruistic choices in jackdaws, Corvus monedula. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34922. [PMID: 22511972 PMCID: PMC3325283 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Other-regarding preferences are a critical feature of human cooperation but to what extent non-human animals exhibit these preferences is a matter of intense discussion. We tested whether jackdaws show prosocial behaviour (providing benefits to others at no cost to themselves) and altruism (providing benefits to others while incurring costs) with both sibling and non-sibling recipients. In the prosocial condition, a box was baited on both the actor's and the recipient's side (1/1 option), whereas another box provided food only for the actor (1/0 option). In the altruistic condition, the boxes contained food for either the actor (1/0 option) or the recipient (0/1 option). The proportion of selfish (1/0 option) and cooperative (1/1 and 0/1 option, respectively) actors' choices was significantly affected by the recipients' behaviour. If recipients approached the boxes first and positioned themselves next to the box baited on their side, trying to access the food reward (recipient-first trials), actors were significantly more cooperative than when the actors approached the boxes first and made their choice prior to the recipients' arrival (actor-first trials). Further, in recipient-first trials actors were more cooperative towards recipients of the opposite sex, an effect that was even more pronounced in the altruistic condition. Hence, at no cost to the actors, all recipients could significantly influence the actors' behaviour, whereas at high costs this could be achieved even more so by recipients of different sex. Local/stimulus enhancement is discussed as the most likely cognitive mechanism to account for these effects.
Collapse
|
80
|
Chimpanzees' flexible targeted helping based on an understanding of conspecifics' goals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:3588-92. [PMID: 22315399 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1108517109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans extensively help others altruistically, which plays an important role in maintaining cooperative societies. Although some nonhuman animals are also capable of helping others altruistically, humans are considered unique in our voluntary helping and our variety of helping behaviors. Many still believe that this is because only humans can understand others' goals due to our unique "theory of mind" abilities, especially shared intentionality. However, we know little of the cognitive mechanisms underlying helping in nonhuman animals, especially if and how they understand others' goals. The present study provides the empirical evidence for flexible targeted helping depending on conspecifics' needs in chimpanzees. The subjects of this study selected an appropriate tool from a random set of seven objects to transfer to a conspecific partner confronted with differing tool-use situations, indicating that they understood what their partner needed. This targeted helping, (i.e., selecting the appropriate tool to transfer), was observed only when the helpers could visually assess their partner's situation. If visual access was obstructed, the chimpanzees still tried to help their partner upon request, but failed to select and donate the appropriate tool needed by their partner. These results suggest that the limitation in chimpanzees' voluntary helping is not necessarily due to failure in understanding others' goals. Chimpanzees can understand conspecifics' goals and demonstrate cognitively advanced targeted helping as long as they are able to visually evaluate their conspecifics' predicament. However, they will seldom help others without direct request for help.
Collapse
|
81
|
|
82
|
Abstract
The study of human and primate altruism faces an evolutionary anomaly: There is ample evidence for altruistic preferences in our own species and growing evidence in monkeys, but one of our closest relatives, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), is viewed as a reluctant altruist, acting only in response to pressure and solicitation. Although chimpanzee prosocial behavior has been reported both in observational captive studies and in the wild, thus far Prosocial Choice Tests have failed to produce evidence. However, methodologies of previous Prosocial Choice Tests may have handicapped the apes unintentionally. Here we present findings of a paradigm in which chimpanzees chose between two differently colored tokens: one "selfish" token resulting in a reward for the actor only (1/0), and the other "prosocial" token rewarding both the actor and a partner (1/1). Seven female chimpanzees, each tested with three different partners, showed a significant bias for the prosocial option. Prosocial choices occurred both in response to solicitation by the partner and spontaneously without solicitation. However, directed requests and pressure by the partner reduced the actor's prosocial tendency. These results draw into question previous conclusions indicating that chimpanzees have a limited sensitivity to the needs of others and behave prosocially only in response to significant prompting.
Collapse
|
83
|
Abstract
A growing body of evidence shows that humans are remarkably altruistic primates. Food sharing and division of labor play an important role in all human societies, and cooperation extends beyond the bounds of close kinship and networks of reciprocating partners. In humans, altruism is motivated at least in part by empathy and concern for the welfare of others. Although altruistic behavior is well-documented in other primates, the range of altruistic behaviors in other primate species, including the great apes, is much more limited than it is in humans. Moreover, when altruism does occur among other primates, it is typically limited to familiar group members--close kin, mates, and reciprocating partners. This suggests that there may be fundamental differences in the social preferences that motivate altruism across the primate order, and there is currently considerable interest in how we came to be such unusual apes. A body of experimental studies designed to examine the phylogenetic range of prosocial sentiments and behavior is beginning to shed some light on this issue. In experimental settings, chimpanzees and tamarins do not consistently take advantage of opportunities to deliver food rewards to others, although capuchins and marmosets do deliver food rewards to others in similar kinds of tasks. Although chimpanzees do not satisfy experimental criteria for prosociality in food delivery tasks, they help others complete tasks to obtain a goal. Differences in performance across species and differences in performance across tasks are not yet fully understood and raise new questions for further study.
Collapse
|
84
|
Melis AP, Warneken F, Jensen K, Schneider AC, Call J, Tomasello M. Chimpanzees help conspecifics obtain food and non-food items. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:1405-13. [PMID: 20980301 PMCID: PMC3061135 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.1735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) sometimes help both humans and conspecifics in experimental situations in which immediate selfish benefits can be ruled out. However, in several experiments, chimpanzees have not provided food to a conspecific even when it would cost them nothing, leading to the hypothesis that prosociality in the food-provisioning context is a derived trait in humans. Here, we show that chimpanzees help conspecifics obtain both food and non-food items--given that the donor cannot get the food herself. Furthermore, we show that the key factor eliciting chimpanzees' targeted helping is the recipients' attempts to either get the food or get the attention of the potential donor. The current findings add to the accumulating body of evidence that humans and chimpanzees share the motivation and skills necessary to help others in situations in which they cannot selfishly benefit. Humans, however, show prosocial motives more readily and in a wider range of contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alicia P Melis
- Department of Comparative and Developmental Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
85
|
Jaeggi AV, Burkart JM, Van Schaik CP. On the psychology of cooperation in humans and other primates: combining the natural history and experimental evidence of prosociality. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365:2723-35. [PMID: 20679115 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In any given species, cooperation involves prosocial acts that usually return a fitness benefit to the actor. These acts are produced by a set of psychological rules, which will be similar in related species if they have a similar natural history of cooperation. Prosocial acts can be (i) reactive, i.e. in response to specific stimuli, or (ii) proactive, i.e. occur in the absence of such stimuli. We propose that reactive prosocial acts reflect sensitivity to (i) signals or signs of need and (ii) the presence and size of an audience, as modified by (iii) social distance to the partner or partners. We examine the evidence for these elements in humans and other animals, especially non-human primates, based on the natural history of cooperation, quantified in the context of food sharing, and various experimental paradigms. The comparison suggests that humans share with their closest living relatives reactive responses to signals of need, but differ in sensitivity to signs of need and cues of being watched, as well as in the presence of proactive prosociality. We discuss ultimate explanations for these derived features, in particular the adoption of cooperative breeding as well as concern for reputation and costly signalling during human evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian V Jaeggi
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
86
|
Abstract
Although cooperation is a widespread phenomenon in nature, human cooperation exceeds that of all other species with regard to the scale and range of cooperative activities. Here we review and discuss differences between humans and non-humans in the strategies employed to maintain cooperation and control free-riders. We distinguish forms of cooperative behaviour based on their influence on the immediate payoffs of actor and recipient. If the actor has immediate costs and only the recipient obtains immediate benefits, we term this investment. If the behaviour has immediate positive effects for both actor and recipient, we call this a self-serving mutually beneficial behaviour or mutual cooperation. We argue that humans, in contrast to all other species, employ a wider range of enforcement mechanisms, which allow higher levels of cooperation to evolve and stabilize among unrelated individuals and in large groups. We also discuss proximate mechanisms underlying cooperative behaviour and focus on our experimental work with humans and our closest primate relatives. Differences in the proximate mechanisms also seem to contribute to explaining humans' greater ability to cooperate and enforce cooperation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alicia P Melis
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
87
|
Greenberg JR, Hamann K, Warneken F, Tomasello M. Chimpanzee helping in collaborative and noncollaborative contexts. Anim Behav 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
88
|
The influence of kin relationship and reciprocal context on chimpanzees' other-regarding preferences. Anim Behav 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|