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Abstract
Melanins are ancient biological pigments found in all kingdoms of life. In fungi, their role in microbial pathogenesis is well established; however, these complex biomolecules also confer upon fungal microorganisms the faculty to tolerate extreme environments such as the Earth's poles, the International Space Station and places contaminated by toxic metals and ionizing radiation. A remarkable property of melanin is its capacity to interact with a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies, functioning as a protecting and energy harvesting pigment. Other roles of fungal melanin include scavenging of free radical, thermo-tolerance, metal ion sequestration, cell development, and mechanical-chemical cellular strength. In this review, we explore the various functions ascribed to this biological pigment in fungi and its remarkable physicochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radames JB Cordero
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
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Pacelli C, Bryan RA, Onofri S, Selbmann L, Shuryak I, Dadachova E. Melanin is effective in protecting fast and slow growing fungi from various types of ionizing radiation. Environ Microbiol 2017; 19:1612-1624. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 01/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Pacelli
- Department of Ecological and Biological ScienceUniversity of TusciaViterbo Italy
- Department of RadiologyAlbert Einstein College of MedicineBronx NY USA
| | - Ruth A. Bryan
- Department of RadiologyAlbert Einstein College of MedicineBronx NY USA
| | - Silvano Onofri
- Department of Ecological and Biological ScienceUniversity of TusciaViterbo Italy
| | - Laura Selbmann
- Department of Ecological and Biological ScienceUniversity of TusciaViterbo Italy
| | - Igor Shuryak
- Center for Radiological ResearchColumbia UniversityNew York NY USA
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Unraveling Fungal Radiation Resistance Regulatory Networks through the Genome-Wide Transcriptome and Genetic Analyses of Cryptococcus neoformans. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.01483-16. [PMID: 27899501 PMCID: PMC5137497 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01483-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The basidiomycetous fungus Cryptococcus neoformans has been known to be highly radiation resistant and has been found in fatal radioactive environments such as the damaged nuclear reactor at Chernobyl. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the radiation resistance phenotype of C. neoformans, we identified genes affected by gamma radiation through genome-wide transcriptome analysis and characterized their functions. We found that genes involved in DNA damage repair systems were upregulated in response to gamma radiation. Particularly, deletion of recombinase RAD51 and two DNA-dependent ATPase genes, RAD54 and RDH54, increased cellular susceptibility to both gamma radiation and DNA-damaging agents. A variety of oxidative stress response genes were also upregulated. Among them, sulfiredoxin contributed to gamma radiation resistance in a peroxiredoxin/thioredoxin-independent manner. Furthermore, we found that genes involved in molecular chaperone expression, ubiquitination systems, and autophagy were induced, whereas genes involved in the biosynthesis of proteins and fatty acids/sterols were downregulated. Most importantly, we discovered a number of novel C. neoformans genes, the expression of which was modulated by gamma radiation exposure, and their deletion rendered cells susceptible to gamma radiation exposure, as well as DNA damage insults. Among these genes, we found that a unique transcription factor containing the basic leucine zipper domain, named Bdr1, served as a regulator of the gamma radiation resistance of C. neoformans by controlling expression of DNA repair genes, and its expression was regulated by the evolutionarily conserved DNA damage response protein kinase Rad53. Taken together, the current transcriptome and functional analyses contribute to the understanding of the unique molecular mechanism of the radiation-resistant fungus C. neoformans. Although there are no natural environments under intense radiation, some living organisms have been found to show high radiation resistance. Organisms harboring the ability of radiation resistance have unique regulatory networks to overcome this stress. Cryptococcus neoformans is one of the radiation-resistant fungi and is found in highly radioactive environments. However, it remains elusive how radiation-resistant eukaryotic microorganisms work differentially from radiation-sensitive ones. Here, we performed transcriptome analysis of C. neoformans to explore gene expression profiles after gamma radiation exposure and functionally characterized some of identified radiation resistance genes. Notably, we identified a novel regulator of radiation resistance, named Bdr1 (a bZIP TF for DNA damage response 1), which is a transcription factor (TF) that is not closely homologous to any known TF and is transcriptionally controlled by the Rad53 kinase. Therefore, our work could shed light on understanding not only the radiation response but also the radiation resistance mechanism of C. neoformans.
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Das D, Chakraborty A, Santra SC. Effect of Gamma Radiation on Zinc Tolerance Efficiency of Aspergillus terreus Thorn. Curr Microbiol 2015; 72:248-58. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-015-0944-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Tesei D, Marzban G, Marchetti-Deschmann M, Tafer H, Arcalis E, Sterflinger K. Proteome of tolerance fine-tuning in the human pathogen black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis. J Proteomics 2015; 128:39-57. [PMID: 26189359 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis is a worldwide distributed agent of primary and secondary diseases in both immunocompromised and healthy humans, with a high prevalence in human-made environments. Since thermo-tolerance has a crucial role in the fungus persistence in man-dominated habitat and in its pathogenicity, three incubation temperatures (37, 45, 1 °C) and two time spans (1 h, 1 week) were selected to simulate different environmental conditions and to investigate the effect of temperature on the proteome of E. dermatitidis CBS 525.76. Using a novel protocol for protein extraction from black yeasts, 2-D DIGE could be applied for characterization of changes in total protein spot abundance among the experimental conditions. A total of 32 variable proteins were identified by mass spectrometry. Data about protein functions, localization and pathways were also obtained. A typical stress response under non-optimal temperature could not be observed at the proteome level, whereas a reduction of the metabolic activity, mostly concerning processes as the general carbon metabolism, was detected after exposure to cold. These results suggest that a fine protein modulation takes place following temperature treatment and a repertoire of stable protein might be at the base of E. dermatitidis adaptation to altered growth conditions. SIGNIFICANCE E. dermatitidis is a pathogenic black yeast causing neurotropic infections, systemic and subcutaneous disease in a wide range of hosts, including humans. The discovery of the fungus high prevalence in man-made habitats, including sauna facilities, drinking water and dishwashers, generated concern and raised questions about the infection route. In the present work - which is the first contribution on E. dermatitidis proteome - the effect of different temperature conditions on the fungus protein pattern have been analyzed by using a gel-based approach and the temperature responsive proteins have been identified. The absence of a typical stress response following the exposure to non-optimal temperature was detected at the proteome level, along with a general reduction of the metabolic activity after exposure to cold. These results suggest that a very fine regulation of the protein expression as well as adaptations involving a basic set of stable proteins may be at the base of E. dermatitidis enormous ecological plasticity, which plays a role in the fungus distribution, also enabling the transition from natural to human habitat and to the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Tesei
- VIBT Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Gorji Marzban
- Plant Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Marchetti-Deschmann
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/164-IAC, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hakim Tafer
- VIBT Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Elsa Arcalis
- Institute for Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Sterflinger
- VIBT Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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Blasi B, Tafer H, Tesei D, Sterflinger K. From Glacier to Sauna: RNA-Seq of the Human Pathogen Black Fungus Exophiala dermatitidis under Varying Temperature Conditions Exhibits Common and Novel Fungal Response. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127103. [PMID: 26061625 PMCID: PMC4463862 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Exophiala dermatitidis (Wangiella dermatitidis) belongs to the group of the so-called black yeasts. Thanks in part to its thick and strongly melanized cell walls, E. dermatitidis is extremely tolerant to various kinds of stress, including extreme pH, temperature and desiccation. E. dermatitidis is also the agent responsible for various severe illnesses in humans, such as pneumonia and keratitis, and might lead to fatal brain infections. Due to its association with the human environment, its poly-extremophilic lifestyle and its pathogenicity in humans, E. dermatitidis has become an important model organism. In this study we present the functional analysis of the transcriptional response of the fungus at 1°C and 45°C, in comparison with that at 37°C, for two different exposition times, i.e. 1 hour and 1 week. At 1°C, E. dermatitidis uses a large repertoire of tools to acclimatize, such as lipid membrane fluidization, trehalose production or cytoskeleton rearrangement, which allows the fungus to remain metabolically active. At 45°C, the fungus drifts into a replicative state and increases the activity of the Golgi apparatus. As a novel finding, our study provides evidence that, apart from the protein coding genes, non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs as well as fusion-transcripts are differentially regulated and that the function of the fusion-transcripts can be related to the corresponding temperature condition. This work establishes that E. dermatitidis adapts to its environment by modulating coding and non-coding gene transcription levels and through the regulation of chimeric and circular RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Blasi
- VIBT-Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hakim Tafer
- VIBT-Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Donatella Tesei
- VIBT-Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Sterflinger
- VIBT-Extremophile Center, Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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de Souza LR, Muehlmann LA, dos Santos MSC, Ganassin R, Simón-Vázquez R, Joanitti GA, Mosiniewicz-Szablewska E, Suchocki P, Morais PC, González-Fernández Á, Azevedo RB, Báo SN. PVM/MA-shelled selol nanocapsules promote cell cycle arrest in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells. J Nanobiotechnology 2014; 12:32. [PMID: 25149827 PMCID: PMC4422290 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-014-0032-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selol is an oily mixture of selenitetriacylglycerides that was obtained as a semi-synthetic compound containing selenite. Selol is effective against cancerous cells and less toxic to normal cells compared with inorganic forms of selenite. However, Selol's hydrophobicity hinders its administration in vivo. Therefore, the present study aimed to produce a formulation of Selol nanocapsules (SPN) and to test its effectiveness against pulmonary adenocarcinoma cells (A549). RESULTS Nanocapsules were produced through an interfacial nanoprecipitation method. The polymer shell was composed of poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride) (PVM/MA) copolymer. The obtained nanocapsules were monodisperse and stable. Both free Selol (S) and SPN reduced the viability of A549 cells, whereas S induced a greater reduction in non-tumor cell viability than SPN. The suppressor effect of SPN was primarily associated to the G2/M arrest of the cell cycle, as was corroborated by the down-regulations of the CCNB1 and CDC25C genes. Apoptosis and necrosis were induced by Selol in a discrete percentage of A549 cells. SPN also increased the production of reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidative cellular damage and to the overexpression of the GPX1, CYP1A1, BAX and BCL2 genes. CONCLUSIONS This study presents a stable formulation of PVM/MA-shelled Selol nanocapsules and provides the first demonstration that Selol promotes G2/M arrest in cancerous cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmilla Regina de Souza
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Programme, University of Brasília, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | | | | | - Rayane Ganassin
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Rosana Simón-Vázquez
- Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO), Institute of Biomedical Research of Vigo, University of Vigo, Vigo 36310, Pontevedra, Spain
| | | | | | - Piotr Suchocki
- Department of Bioanalysis and Drugs Analysis, Warsaw Medical University, Warsaw 02-097, Poland,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, National Medicines Institute, Warsaw 00-725, Poland
| | - Paulo César Morais
- Institute of Physics, University of Brasília, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil,School of Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, Hubei, China
| | - África González-Fernández
- Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO), Institute of Biomedical Research of Vigo, University of Vigo, Vigo 36310, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Ricardo Bentes Azevedo
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Sônia Nair Báo
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
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Stickel S, Gomes N, Su TT. The Role of Translational Regulation in Survival after Radiation Damage; an Opportunity for Proteomics Analysis. Proteomes 2014; 2:272-290. [PMID: 26269784 PMCID: PMC4530795 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes2020272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2014] [Revised: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we will summarize the data from different model systems that illustrate the need for proteome-wide analyses of the biological consequences of ionizing radiation (IR). IR remains one of three main therapy choices for oncology, the others being surgery and chemotherapy. Understanding how cells and tissues respond to IR is essential for improving therapeutic regimes against cancer. Numerous studies demonstrating the changes in the transcriptome following exposure to IR, in diverse systems, can be found in the scientific literature. However, the limitation of our knowledge is illustrated by the fact that the number of transcripts that change after IR exposure is approximately an order of magnitude lower than the number of transcripts that re-localize to or from ribosomes under similar conditions. Furthermore, changes in the post-translational modifications of proteins (phosphorylation, acetylation as well as degradation) are profoundly important for the cellular response to IR. These considerations make proteomics a highly suitable tool for mechanistic studies of the effect of IR. Strikingly such studies remain outnumbered by those utilizing proteomics for diagnostic purposes such as the identification of biomarkers for the outcome of radiation therapy. Here we will discuss the role of the ribosome and translational regulation in the survival and preservation of cells and tissues after exposure to ionizing radiation. In doing so we hope to provide a strong incentive for the study of proteome-wide changes following IR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Stickel
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; E-Mails: (S.S.); (N.G.)
| | - Nathan Gomes
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; E-Mails: (S.S.); (N.G.)
- SuviCa, Inc. P O Box 3131, Boulder, CO 80301, USA
| | - Tin Tin Su
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; E-Mails: (S.S.); (N.G.)
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Zakharova K, Marzban G, de Vera JP, Lorek A, Sterflinger K. Protein patterns of black fungi under simulated Mars-like conditions. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5114. [PMID: 24870977 PMCID: PMC4037706 DOI: 10.1038/srep05114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Two species of microcolonial fungi – Cryomyces antarcticus and Knufia perforans - and a species of black yeasts–Exophiala jeanselmei - were exposed to thermo-physical Mars-like conditions in the simulation chamber of the German Aerospace Center. In this study the alterations at the protein expression level from various fungi species under Mars-like conditions were analyzed for the first time using 2D gel electrophoresis. Despite of the expectations, the fungi did not express any additional proteins under Mars simulation that could be interpreted as stress induced HSPs. However, up-regulation of some proteins and significant decreasing of protein number were detected within the first 24 hours of the treatment. After 4 and 7 days of the experiment protein spot number was increased again and the protein patterns resemble the protein patterns of biomass from normal conditions. It indicates the recovery of the metabolic activity under Martian environmental conditions after one week of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Zakharova
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, A - 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gorji Marzban
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, A - 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jean-Pierre de Vera
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Lorek
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Sterflinger
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, A - 1190 Vienna, Austria
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Comparative genomic and transcriptomic analysis of wangiella dermatitidis, a major cause of phaeohyphomycosis and a model black yeast human pathogen. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2014; 4:561-78. [PMID: 24496724 PMCID: PMC4059230 DOI: 10.1534/g3.113.009241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Black or dark brown (phaeoid) fungi cause cutaneous, subcutaneous, and systemic infections in humans. Black fungi thrive in stressful conditions such as intense light, high radiation, and very low pH. Wangiella (Exophiala) dermatitidis is arguably the most studied phaeoid fungal pathogen of humans. Here, we report our comparative analysis of the genome of W. dermatitidis and the transcriptional response to low pH stress. This revealed that W. dermatitidis has lost the ability to synthesize alpha-glucan, a cell wall compound many pathogenic fungi use to evade the host immune system. In contrast, W. dermatitidis contains a similar profile of chitin synthase genes as related fungi and strongly induces genes involved in cell wall synthesis in response to pH stress. The large portfolio of transporters may provide W. dermatitidis with an enhanced ability to remove harmful products as well as to survive on diverse nutrient sources. The genome encodes three independent pathways for producing melanin, an ability linked to pathogenesis; these are active during pH stress, potentially to produce a barrier to accumulated oxidative damage that might occur under stress conditions. In addition, a full set of fungal light-sensing genes is present, including as part of a carotenoid biosynthesis gene cluster. Finally, we identify a two-gene cluster involved in nucleotide sugar metabolism conserved with a subset of fungi and characterize a horizontal transfer event of this cluster between fungi and algal viruses. This work reveals how W. dermatitidis has adapted to stress and survives in diverse environments, including during human infections.
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Shuryak I, Bryan RA, Nosanchuk JD, Dadachova E. Mathematical modeling predicts enhanced growth of X-ray irradiated pigmented fungi. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85561. [PMID: 24454887 PMCID: PMC3893251 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation is known for its cytotoxic and mutagenic properties. However, recent evidence suggests that chronic sub-lethal irradiation stimulates the growth of melanin-pigmented (melanized) fungi, supporting the hypothesis that interactions between melanin and ionizing photons generate energy useful for fungal growth, and/or regulate growth-promoting genes. There are no quantitative models of how fungal proliferation is affected by ionizing photon energy, dose rate, and presence versus absence of melanin on the same genetic background. Here we present such a model, which we test using experimental data on melanin-modulated radiation-induced proliferation enhancement in the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans, exposed to two different peak energies (150 and 320 kVp) over a wide range of X-ray dose rates. Our analysis demonstrates that radiation-induced proliferation enhancement in C. neoformans behaves as a binary “on/off” phenomenon, which is triggered by dose rates <0.002 mGy/h, and stays in the “on” position. A competing dose rate-dependent growth inhibition becomes apparent at dose rates >5000 mGy/h. Proliferation enhancement of irradiated cells compared with unirradiated controls occurs at both X-ray peak energies, but its magnitude is modulated by X-ray peak energy and cell melanization. At dose rates <5000 mGy/h, both melanized and non-melanized cells exposed to 150 kVp X-rays, and non-melanized cells exposed to 320 kVp X-rays, all exhibit the same proliferation enhancement: on average, chronic irradiation stimulates each founder cell to produce 100 (95% CI: 83, 116) extra descendants over 48 hours. Interactions between melanin and 320 kVp X-rays result in a significant (2-tailed p-value = 4.8×10−5) additional increase in the number of radiation-induced descendants per founder cell: by 55 (95% CI: 29, 81). These results show that both melanin-dependent and melanin-independent mechanisms are involved in radiation-induced fungal growth enhancement, and implicate direct and/or indirect interactions of melanin with high energy ionizing photons as an important pro-proliferative factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Shuryak
- Center for Radiological Research, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Ruth A. Bryan
- Department of Radiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Ekaterina Dadachova
- Department of Radiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
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