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Yong SK, Shrivastava M, Srivastava P, Kunhikrishnan A, Bolan N. Environmental applications of chitosan and its derivatives. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2015; 233:1-43. [PMID: 25367132 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-10479-9_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Chitosan originates from the seafood processing industry and is one of the most abundant of bio-waste materials. Chitosan is a by-product of the alkaline deacetylation process of chitin. Chemically, chitosan is a polysaccharide that is soluble in acidic solution and precipitates at higher pHs. It has great potential for certain environmental applications, such as remediation of organic and inorganic contaminants, including toxic metals and dyes in soil, sediment and water, and development of contaminant sensors. Traditionally, seafood waste has been the primary source of chitin. More recently, alternative sources have emerged such as fungal mycelium, mushroom and krill wastes, and these new sources of chitin and chitosan may overcome seasonal supply limitations that have existed. The production of chitosan from the above-mentioned waste streams not only reduces waste volume, but alleviates pressure on landfills to which the waste would otherwise go. Chitosan production involves four major steps, viz., deproteination, demineralization, bleaching and deacetylation. These four processes require excessive usage of strong alkali at different stages, and drives chitosan's production cost up, potentially making the application of high-grade chitosan for commercial remediation untenable. Alternate chitosan processing techniques, such as microbial or enzymatic processes, may become more cost-effective due to lower energy consumption and waste generation. Chitosan has proved to be versatile for so many environmental applications, because it possesses certain key functional groups, including - OH and -NH2 . However, the efficacy of chitosan is diminished at low pH because of its increased solubility and instability. These deficiencies can be overcome by modifying chitosan's structure via crosslinking. Such modification not only enhances the structural stability of chitosan under low pH conditions, but also improves its physicochemical characteristics, such as porosity, hydraulic conductivity, permeability, surface area and sorption capacity. Crosslinked chitosan is an excellent sorbent for trace metals especially because of the high flexibility of its structural stability. Sorption of trace metals by chitosan is selective and independent of the size and hardness of metal ions, or the physical form of chitosan (e.g., film, powder and solution). Both -OH and -NH2 groups in chitosan provide vital binding sites for complexing metal cations. At low pH, -NH3 + groups attract and coagulate negatively charged contaminants such as metal oxyanions, humic acids and dye molecules. Grafting certain functional molecules into the chitin structure improves sorption capacity and selectivity for remediating specific metal ions. For example, introducing sulfur and nitrogen donor ligands to chitosan alters the sorption preference for metals. Low molecular weight chitosan derivatives have been used to remediate metal contaminated soil and sediments. They have also been applied in permeable reactive barriers to remediate metals in soil and groundwater. Both chitosan and modified chitosan have been used to phytoremediate metals; however, the mechanisms by which they assist in mobilizing metals are not yet well understood. In addition, microbes have been used in combination with chitosan to remediate metals (e.g., Cu and Zn) in contaminated soils. Chitosan has also been used to remediate organic contaminants, such as oil-based wastewater, dyes, tannins, humic acids, phenols, bisphenoi-A, p-benzoquinone, organo-phosphorus insecticides, among others. Chitosan has also been utilized to develop optical and electrochemical sensors for in-situ detection of trace contaminants. In sensor technology, naturally-derived chitosan is used primarily as an immobilizing agent that results from its enzyme compatibility, and stabilizing effect on nanoparticles. Contaminant-sensing agents, such as enzymes, microbes and nanoparticles, have been homogeneously immobilized in chitosan gels by using coagulating (e.g., alginate, phosphate) or crosslinking agents (e.g., GA, ECH). Such immobilization maintains the stability of sensing elements in the chitosan gel phase, and prevents inactivation and loss of the sensing agent. In this review, we have shown that chitosan, an efficient by-product of a waste biomaterial, has great potential for many environmental applications. With certain limitations, chitosan and its derivatives can be used for remediating contaminated soil and wastewater. Notwithstanding, further research is needed to enhance the physicochemical properties of chitosan and mitigate its deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soon Kong Yong
- Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia,
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Ribeiro TG, Franca JR, Fuscaldi LL, Santos ML, Duarte MC, Lage PS, Martins VT, Costa LE, Fernandes SOA, Cardoso VN, Castilho RO, Soto M, Tavares CAP, Faraco AAG, Coelho EAF, Chávez-Fumagalli MA. An optimized nanoparticle delivery system based on chitosan and chondroitin sulfate molecules reduces the toxicity of amphotericin B and is effective in treating tegumentary leishmaniasis. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:5341-53. [PMID: 25429219 PMCID: PMC4242406 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s68966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphotericin B (AmpB) is active against leishmaniasis, but its use is hampered due to its high toxicity observed in patients. In this study, a nanoparticles-delivery system for AmpB (NQC-AmpB), containing chitosan and chondroitin sulfate molecules, was evaluated in BALB/c mice against Leishmania amazonensis. An in vivo biodistribution study, including biochemical and toxicological evaluations, was performed to evaluate the toxicity of AmpB. Nanoparticles were radiolabeled with technetium-99m and injected in mice. The products presented a similar biodistribution in the liver, spleen, and kidneys of the animals. Free AmpB induced alterations in the body weight of the mice, which, in the biochemical analysis, indicated hepatic and renal injury, as well as morphological damage to the kidneys of the animals. In general, no significant organic alteration was observed in the animals treated with NQC-AmpB. Mice were infected with L. amazonensis and treated with the nanoparticles or free AmpB; then, parasitological and immunological analyses were performed. The NQC-AmpB group, as compared to the control groups, presented significant reductions in the lesion size and in the parasite burden in all evaluated organs. These animals presented significantly higher levels of IFN-γ and IL-12, and low levels of IL-4 and IL-10, when compared to the control groups. The NQC-AmpB system was effective in reducing the infection in the animals, and proved to be effective in diminishing the toxicity evoked by AmpB, which was observed when it was administered alone. In conclusion, NQC-AmpB could be considered a viable possibility for future studies in the treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana G Ribeiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Juçara R Franca
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Leonardo L Fuscaldi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mara L Santos
- Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mariana C Duarte
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Infectologia e Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Paula S Lage
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Infectologia e Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vivian T Martins
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Lourena E Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Infectologia e Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Simone O A Fernandes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil ; Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Valbert N Cardoso
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil ; Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rachel O Castilho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil ; Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Manuel Soto
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos A P Tavares
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - André A G Faraco
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil ; Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Eduardo A F Coelho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Infectologia e Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil ; Departamento de Patologia Clínica, COLTEC, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Miguel A Chávez-Fumagalli
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Infectologia e Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Patti AM, Katsiki N, Nikolic D, Al-Rasadi K, Rizzo M. Nutraceuticals in Lipid-Lowering Treatment. Angiology 2014; 66:416-21. [DOI: 10.1177/0003319714542999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Lipid-lowering drugs may cause adverse effects and, although lipid targets may be achieved, a substantial residual cardiovascular (CV) risk remains. Treatment with agents mimicking proteins present in the body, such as incretin-based therapies, provided promising results. However, in order to improve lipids and CV risk, lifestyle measures remain important. Some researchers focused on nutraceuticals that may beneficially affect metabolic parameters and minimize CV risk. Chitosan, a dietary fiber, can regulate lipids with benefit on anthropometric parameters. The beneficial properties of dietary supplements (such as green tea extract, prebiotics, plant sterols, and stanols) on plasma lipids, lipoproteins, blood pressure, glucose, and insulin levels and their anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects are documented. However, larger, prospective clinical trials are required to confirm such benefits. Such treatments may be recommended when lipid-lowering drugs are neither indicated nor tolerated as well as in order to achieve therapeutic targets and/or overcome residual CV risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Maria Patti
- Biomedical Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Department of Population Health, Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology, Palermo, Italy
| | - Niki Katsiki
- Second Propedeutic Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dragana Nikolic
- Biomedical Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Khalid Al-Rasadi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | - Manfredi Rizzo
- Biomedical Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Department of Population Health, Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology, Palermo, Italy
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Bahar B, O’Doherty JV, O’Doherty AM, Sweeney T. Chito-oligosaccharide inhibits the de-methylation of a 'CpG' island within the leptin (LEP) promoter during adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60011. [PMID: 23544120 PMCID: PMC3609775 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chito-oligosaccharide (COS) is a natural bioactive compound, which has been shown to suppress lipid metabolic genes and lipid accumulation in differentiating adipocytes. Leptin has been identified as a key regulator of energy homeostasis and is known to be under epigenetic regulation during adipogenesis. Hence, the first objective of this experiment was to compare leptin gene (LEP) expression and leptin secretion during the different stages of adipogenesis and to investigate the effect of COS on these processes. As COS inhibited LEP expression during adipogenesis, the second aim was to investigate the methylation dynamics of a ‘CpG’ island in the proximal region of the LEP promoter during adipogenesis and to determine the effect of COS on this process. Mouse 3T3-L1 cells were stimulated to differentiate in the absence or presence of COS and the levels of leptin mRNA and protein were evaluated on days 0, 2, 4 and 6 post-induction of differentiation (PID). The extent of de-methylation of six CpG sites was evaluated. LEP mRNA transcript and protein could not be detected on either day 0PID or 2PID. In contrast, both were detected on day 4PID (P<0.05) and 6PID (P<0.001) and both were inhibited by COS (P<0.001). Of the six CpG sites analyzed, CpG_52, CpG_62 and CpG_95 became 11.5, 5.0 and 5.0% de-methylated between day 2PID and 6PID, respectively. COS blocked this de-methylation event at CpG_52 (P<0.001), CpG_62 (P<0.01) and CpG_95 (P<0.01) on day 6PID. These data suggest that COS can have an epigenetic effect on differentiating adipocytes, a novel biological function of COS which has potential applications for the manipulation of leptin gene expression, adipogenesis, and conditions within the metabolic syndrome spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojlul Bahar
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - John V. O’Doherty
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alan M. O’Doherty
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Torres Sweeney
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- * E-mail:
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