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Le Mercier I, Lines JL, Noelle RJ. Beyond CTLA-4 and PD-1, the Generation Z of Negative Checkpoint Regulators. Front Immunol 2015; 6:418. [PMID: 26347741 PMCID: PMC4544156 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last two years, clinical trials with blocking antibodies to the negative checkpoint regulators CTLA-4 and PD-1 have rekindled the hope for cancer immunotherapy. Multiple negative checkpoint regulators protect the host against autoimmune reactions but also restrict the ability of T cells to effectively attack tumors. Releasing these brakes has emerged as an exciting strategy for cancer treatment. Conversely, these pathways can be manipulated to achieve durable tolerance for treatment of autoimmune diseases and transplantation. In the future, treatment may involve combination therapy to target multiple cell types and stages of the adaptive immune responses. In this review, we describe the current knowledge on the recently discovered negative checkpoint regulators, future targets for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Le Mercier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth , Lebanon, NH , USA
| | - J Louise Lines
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth , Lebanon, NH , USA
| | - Randolph J Noelle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth , Lebanon, NH , USA
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de Mare-Bredemeijer ELD, Shi XL, Mancham S, van Gent R, van der Heide-Mulder M, de Boer R, Heemskerk MHM, de Jonge J, van der Laan LJW, Metselaar HJ, Kwekkeboom J. Cytomegalovirus-Induced Expression of CD244 after Liver Transplantation Is Associated with CD8+ T Cell Hyporesponsiveness to Alloantigen. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:1838-48. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Astry B, Venkatesha SH, Moudgil KD. Involvement of the IL-23/IL-17 axis and the Th17/Treg balance in the pathogenesis and control of autoimmune arthritis. Cytokine 2015; 74:54-61. [PMID: 25595306 PMCID: PMC4457562 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2014.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 11/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The T helper (Th) cell subsets are characterized by the type of cytokines produced and the master transcription factor expressed. Th1 cells participate in cell-mediated immunity, whereas Th2 cells promote humoral immunity. Furthermore, the two subsets can control each other. Thereby, Th1-Th2 balance offered a key paradigm in understanding the induction and regulation of immune pathology in autoimmune and other diseases. However, over the past decade, Th17 cells producing interleukin-17 (IL-17) have emerged as the major pathogenic T cell subset in many pathological conditions that were previously attributed to Th1 cells. In addition, the role of CD4+CD25+T regulatory cells (Treg) in controlling the activity of Th17 and other T cell subsets has increasingly been realized. Thereby, examination of the Th17/Treg balance in the course of autoimmune diseases has significantly advanced our understanding of the pathogenesis of these disorders. The differentiation of Th17 and Treg cells from naïve T cells is inter-related and controlled in part by the cytokine milieu. For example, transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) is required for Treg induction, whereas the same cytokine in the presence of IL-6 (or IL-1) promotes the differentiation of Th17. Furthermore, IL-23 plays a role in the maintenance of Th17. Accordingly, novel therapeutic approaches are being developed to target IL-23/IL-17 as well as to modulate the Th17/Treg balance in favor of immune regulation to control autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Astry
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States
| | - Shivaprasad H Venkatesha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States
| | - Kamal D Moudgil
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States.
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Abstract
There are very few tumor types for which chemotherapy regimens are regularly curative; notable exceptions include testicular cancer and Hodgkin's lymphoma. In both cases combination chemotherapy approaches are required. Thus, it would seem only logical that combination immunotherapy approaches will be required to induce long-term remissions in the majority of cancer patients. Immune checkpoint blockade can be combined with several other interventions, including radiation therapy, chemotherapy and cancer vaccines. However, the observation that T cells that are rendered not-responsive or "exhausted" by recognition of tumor antigens express multiple non-overlapping checkpoint molecules suggests that immunotherapy approaches in which multiple checkpoint molecules are blocked may be particularly active in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles G Drake
- Departments of Oncology and Urology, James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD.
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55
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Pierini A, Colonna L, Alvarez M, Schneidawind D, Nishikii H, Baker J, Pan Y, Florek M, Kim BS, Negrin RS. Donor Requirements for Regulatory T Cell Suppression of Murine Graft-versus-Host Disease. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:347-55. [PMID: 25994967 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of freshly isolated natural occurring CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Treg) prevents graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in several animal models and following hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) in clinical trials. Donor-derived Treg have been mainly used, as they share the same MHC with CD4(+) and CD8(+) conventional T cells (Tcon) that are primarily responsible for GVHD. Third party-derived Treg are a promising alternative for cellular therapy, as they can be prepared in advance, screened for pathogens and activity, and banked. We explored MHC disparities between Treg and Tcon in HCT to evaluate the impact of different Treg populations in GVHD prevention and survival. Third-party Treg and donor Treg are equally suppressive in ex vivo assays, whereas both donor and third-party but not host Treg protect from GVHD in allogeneic HCT, with donor Treg being the most effective. In an MHC minor mismatched transplantation model (C57BL/6 → BALB/b), donor and third-party Treg were equally effective in controlling GVHD. Furthermore, using an in vivo Treg depletion mouse model, we found that Treg exert their main suppressive activity in the first 2 d after transplantation. Third-party Treg survive for a shorter period of time after adoptive transfer, but despite the shorter survival, they control Tcon proliferation in the early phases of HCT. These studies provide relevant insights on the mechanisms of Treg-mediated protection from GVHD and support for the use of third-party Treg in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Pierini
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Lucrezia Colonna
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Maite Alvarez
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Dominik Schneidawind
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Hidekazu Nishikii
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Jeanette Baker
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Yuqiong Pan
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Mareike Florek
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Byung-Su Kim
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Robert S Negrin
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305; and
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56
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Alahgholi-Hajibehzad M, Kasapoglu P, Jafari R, Rezaei N. The role of T regulatory cells in immunopathogenesis of myasthenia gravis: implications for therapeutics. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2015; 11:859-70. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2015.1047345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Topalian SL, Drake CG, Pardoll DM. Immune checkpoint blockade: a common denominator approach to cancer therapy. Cancer Cell 2015; 27:450-61. [PMID: 25858804 PMCID: PMC4400238 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2968] [Impact Index Per Article: 329.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The immune system recognizes and is poised to eliminate cancer but is held in check by inhibitory receptors and ligands. These immune checkpoint pathways, which normally maintain self-tolerance and limit collateral tissue damage during anti-microbial immune responses, can be co-opted by cancer to evade immune destruction. Drugs interrupting immune checkpoints, such as anti-CTLA-4, anti-PD-1, anti-PD-L1, and others in early development, can unleash anti-tumor immunity and mediate durable cancer regressions. The complex biology of immune checkpoint pathways still contains many mysteries, and the full activity spectrum of checkpoint-blocking drugs, used alone or in combination, is currently the subject of intense study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne L Topalian
- Department of Surgery, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
| | - Charles G Drake
- The Brady Urological Institute, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Drew M Pardoll
- Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Roles of lymphatic endothelial cells expressing peripheral tissue antigens in CD4 T-cell tolerance induction. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6771. [PMID: 25857745 PMCID: PMC4403767 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) directly express peripheral tissue antigens and induce CD8 T-cell deletional tolerance. LECs express MHC-II molecules, suggesting they might also tolerize CD4 T cells. We demonstrate that when β-galactosidase (β-gal) is expressed in LECs, β-gal-specific CD8 T cells undergo deletion via the PD-1/PD-L1 and LAG-3/MHC-II pathways. In contrast, LECs do not present endogenous β-gal in the context of MHC-II molecules to β-gal-specific CD4 T cells. Lack of presentation is independent of antigen localization, as membrane-bound haemagglutinin and I-Eα are also not presented by MHC-II molecules. LECs express invariant chain and cathepsin L, but not H2-M, suggesting that they cannot load endogenous antigenic peptides onto MHC-II molecules. Importantly, LECs transfer β-gal to dendritic cells, which subsequently present it to induce CD4 T-cell anergy. Therefore, LECs serve as an antigen reservoir for CD4 T-cell tolerance, and MHC-II molecules on LECs are used to induce CD8 T-cell tolerance via LAG-3. Lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) induce peripheral tolerance of CD8 T cells. Here the authors show that LECs cannot directly tolerize CD4 T cells as they lack the machinery for loading the antigenic peptide to MHC-II; instead, LECs pass these antigens to dendritic cells that induce CD4 tolerance.
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59
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Abstract
Dysfunctional T cells can render the immune system unable to eliminate infections and cancer. Therapeutic targeting of the surface receptors that inhibit T cell function has begun to show remarkable success in clinical trials. In this Review, we discuss the potential mechanisms of action of the clinical agents that target two of these receptors, programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1) and lymphocyte activation gene 3 protein (LAG3). We also suggest correlative studies that may define the predominant mechanisms of action and identify predictive biomarkers.
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60
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Durham NM, Nirschl CJ, Jackson CM, Elias J, Kochel CM, Anders RA, Drake CG. Lymphocyte Activation Gene 3 (LAG-3) modulates the ability of CD4 T-cells to be suppressed in vivo. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109080. [PMID: 25372844 PMCID: PMC4220939 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphocyte Activation Gene – 3 (LAG-3) is an immune checkpoint molecule that regulates both T-cell activation and homeostasis. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying LAG-3’s function are generally unknown. Using a model in which LAG-3 blockade or absence reliably augmented homeostatic proliferation in vivo, we found that IL-2 and STAT5 are critical for LAG-3 function. Similarly, LAG-3 blockade was ineffective in the absence of regulatory T-cells (Treg), suggesting an important role for LAG-3 in either the responsiveness of conventional T-cells (Tconv) to regulation, or a relative defect in the ability of LAG-3 KO regulatory T-cells (Treg) to suppress the proliferation of Tconv. In this model, LAG-3 KO Treg suppressed proliferation in a manner fairly similar to wild-type (WT) Treg, but LAG-3 KO Tconv were relatively resistant to suppression. Further studies also identified a role for LAG-3 in the induction/expansion of Treg. Finally, we found that LAG-3 blockade (or knockout) led to a relative skewing of naïve CD4 T-cells toward a TH1 phenotype both in vitro and in in vivo. Together, these data suggest that LAG-3 expression on Tconv cells makes them more susceptible to Treg based suppression, and also regulates the development of a TH1 T-cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Durham
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christopher J Nirschl
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christopher M Jackson
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jimmy Elias
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christina M Kochel
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert A Anders
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America; Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Charles G Drake
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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61
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Sundar R, Soong R, Cho BC, Brahmer JR, Soo RA. Immunotherapy in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2014; 85:101-9. [PMID: 24880938 PMCID: PMC4332778 DOI: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the understanding of the role of the immune system in tumor immunosurveillance have resulted in the recognition that tumors can evade immune destruction via the dysregulation of co-inhibitory or checkpoint signals. This has led to the development of a generation immunotherapeutic agents targeting the immune checkpoint pathway. Recent early phase studies of immune checkpoint modulators, such as CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors in NSCLC have reported promising results with prolonged clinical responses and tolerable toxicity. This article provides an overview of co-stimulatory and inhibitory molecules that regulate the immune response to tumors, recent therapies that have been developed to exploit these interactions and the role of predictive biomarkers in treatment selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghav Sundar
- Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Cancer Institute, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Richie Soong
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Department of Pathology, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Byoung-Chul Cho
- Division of Medical Oncology, Yonsei Cancer Center, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Julie R Brahmer
- Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ross A Soo
- Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Cancer Institute, National University Health System, Singapore; Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Department of Surgery, University of Western Australia, Australia.
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62
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Murase K, Kim HT, Bascug ORG, Kawano Y, Ryan J, Matsuoka KI, Davids MS, Koreth J, Ho VT, Cutler C, Armand P, Alyea EP, Blazar BR, Antin JH, Soiffer RJ, Letai A, Ritz J. Increased mitochondrial apoptotic priming of human regulatory T cells after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Haematologica 2014; 99:1499-508. [PMID: 24859877 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2014.104166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4 regulatory T cells play a critical role in establishment of immune tolerance and prevention of graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. The recovery and maintenance of regulatory T cells is dependent on homeostatic factors including the generation of naïve regulatory T cells from hematopoietic precursor cells, the proliferation and expansion of mature regulatory T cells, and the survival of regulatory T cells in vivo. In this study, quantitation of mitochondrial apoptotic priming was used to compare susceptibility of regulatory T cells, conventional CD4 T cells and CD8 T cells to intrinsic pathway apoptosis in 57 patients after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and 25 healthy donors. In healthy donors, regulatory T cells are more susceptible to mitochondrial priming than conventional T cells. Mitochondrial priming is increased after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in all T-cell subsets and particularly in patients with chronic graft-versus-host disease. Regulatory T cells express high levels of CD95 and are also more susceptible than conventional T cells to apoptosis through the extrinsic pathway. However, CD95 expression and extrinsic pathway apoptosis is not increased after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Decreased expression of BCL2 and increased expression of BIM, a mitochondrial cell death activator protein, in regulatory T cells contributes to increased mitochondrial priming in this T-cell subset but additional factors likely contribute to increased mitochondrial priming following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuyuki Murase
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Haesook T Kim
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Cancer Vaccine Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - O R Gregory Bascug
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yutaka Kawano
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeremy Ryan
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Matthew S Davids
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John Koreth
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vincent T Ho
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Corey Cutler
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Philippe Armand
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Edwin P Alyea
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bruce R Blazar
- Masonic Cancer Center and Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Joseph H Antin
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert J Soiffer
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Anthony Letai
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jerome Ritz
- Division of Hematologic Malignancies and Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA Cancer Vaccine Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA, USA
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