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Wolfmeier H, Radecke J, Schoenauer R, Koeffel R, Babiychuk VS, Drücker P, Hathaway LJ, Mitchell TJ, Zuber B, Draeger A, Babiychuk EB. Active release of pneumolysin prepores and pores by mammalian cells undergoing a Streptococcus pneumoniae attack. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1860:2498-2509. [PMID: 27481675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus pneumoniae is a potent human pathogen. Its pore-forming exotoxin pneumolysin is instrumental for breaching the host's epithelial barrier and for the incapacitation of the immune system. METHODS AND RESULTS Using a combination of life imaging and cryo-electron microscopy we show that pneumolysin, released by cultured bacteria, is capable of permeabilizing the plasmalemma of host cells. However, such permeabilization does not lead to cell lysis since pneumolysin is actively removed by the host cells. The process of pore elimination starts with the formation of pore-bearing plasmalemmal nanotubes and proceeds by the shedding of pores that are embedded in the membrane of released microvesicles. Pneumolysin prepores are likewise removed. The protein composition of the toxin-induced microvesicles, assessed by mass spectrometry, is suggestive of a Ca(2+)-triggered mechanism encompassing the proteins of the annexin family and members of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) complex. CONCLUSIONS S. pneumoniae releases sufficient amounts of pneumolysin to perforate the plasmalemma of host cells, however, the immediate cell lysis, which is frequently reported as a result of treatment with purified and artificially concentrated toxin, appears to be an unlikely event in vivo since the toxin pores are efficiently eliminated by microvesicle shedding. Therefore the dysregulation of cellular homeostasis occurring as a result of transient pore formation/elimination should be held responsible for the damaging toxin action. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE We have achieved a comprehensive view of a general plasma membrane repair mechanism after injury by a major bacterial toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Wolfmeier
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Julika Radecke
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland; Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Roman Schoenauer
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - René Koeffel
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Viktoria S Babiychuk
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Drücker
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Lucy J Hathaway
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Friedbühlstrasse 51, Postfach, 3001, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Timothy J Mitchell
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Benoît Zuber
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland.
| | - Annette Draeger
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Eduard B Babiychuk
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland.
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Castro-Gomes T, Corrotte M, Tam C, Andrews NW. Plasma Membrane Repair Is Regulated Extracellularly by Proteases Released from Lysosomes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152583. [PMID: 27028538 PMCID: PMC4814109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic cells rapidly repair wounds on their plasma membrane. Resealing is Ca2+-dependent, and involves exocytosis of lysosomes followed by massive endocytosis. Extracellular activity of the lysosomal enzyme acid sphingomyelinase was previously shown to promote endocytosis and wound removal. However, whether lysosomal proteases released during cell injury participate in resealing is unknown. Here we show that lysosomal proteases regulate plasma membrane repair. Extracellular proteolysis is detected shortly after cell wounding, and inhibition of this process blocks repair. Conversely, surface protein degradation facilitates plasma membrane resealing. The abundant lysosomal cysteine proteases cathepsin B and L, known to proteolytically remodel the extracellular matrix, are rapidly released upon cell injury and are required for efficient plasma membrane repair. In contrast, inhibition of aspartyl proteases or RNAi-mediated silencing of the lysosomal aspartyl protease cathepsin D enhances resealing, an effect associated with the accumulation of active acid sphingomyelinase on the cell surface. Thus, secreted lysosomal cysteine proteases may promote repair by facilitating membrane access of lysosomal acid sphingomyelinase, which promotes wound removal and is subsequently downregulated extracellularly by a process involving cathepsin D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Castro-Gomes
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States of America
| | - Matthias Corrotte
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States of America
| | - Christina Tam
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States of America
| | - Norma W. Andrews
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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53
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Moe AM, Golding AE, Bement WM. Cell healing: Calcium, repair and regeneration. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 45:18-23. [PMID: 26514621 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cell repair is attracting increasing attention due to its conservation, its importance to health, and its utility as a model for cell signaling and cell polarization. However, some of the most fundamental questions concerning cell repair have yet to be answered. Here we consider three such questions: (1) How are wound holes stopped? (2) How is cell regeneration achieved after wounding? (3) How is calcium inrush linked to wound stoppage and cell regeneration?
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison M Moe
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Adriana E Golding
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI, USA
| | - William M Bement
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI, USA.
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54
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Plasma membrane and cytoskeleton dynamics during single-cell wound healing. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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55
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Andrews NW, Corrotte M, Castro-Gomes T. Above the fray: Surface remodeling by secreted lysosomal enzymes leads to endocytosis-mediated plasma membrane repair. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 45:10-7. [PMID: 26433178 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The study of plasma membrane repair is coming of age. Mirroring human adolescence, the field shows at the same time signs of maturity and significant uncertainty, confusion and skepticism. Here we discuss concepts that emerged from experimental data over the years, some of which are solidly established while others are still subject to different interpretations. The firmly established concepts include the critical requirement for Ca(2+) in wound repair, and the role of rapid exocytosis of intracellular vesicles. Lysosomes are being increasingly recognized as the major vesicles involved in injury-induced exocytosis in many cell types, as a growing number of laboratories detect markers for these organelles on the cell surface and lysosomal hydrolases in the supernatant of wounded cells. The more recent observation of massive endocytosis following Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis initially came as a surprise, but this finding is also being increasingly reported by different groups, shifting the discussion to the mechanisms by which endocytosis promotes repair, and whether it operates or not in parallel with the shedding of membrane blebs. We discuss how the abundant intracellular vesicles that undergo homotypic fusion close to wound sites, previously interpreted as exocytic membrane patches, actually acquire extracellular tracers demonstrating their endocytic origin. We also suggest that an initial, temporary patch that prevents cytosol loss until the bilayer is restored might result not from vesicular fusion, but from rapid Ca(2+)-dependent crosslinking and aggregation of cytosolic proteins. Finally, we propose that cell surface remodeling, orchestrated by the extracellular release of lysosomal hydrolases and perhaps also cytosolic molecules, may represent a key aspect of the plasma membrane repair mechanism that has received little attention so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- N W Andrews
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - M Corrotte
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - T Castro-Gomes
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
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56
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Inhibition of microvesiculation sensitizes prostate cancer cells to chemotherapy and reduces docetaxel dose required to limit tumor growth in vivo. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13006. [PMID: 26302712 PMCID: PMC4548233 DOI: 10.1038/srep13006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Microvesicles shed from cells carry constituents of the cell cytoplasm, including, of importance in multidrug resistance to cancer chemotherapy, drugs that the tumor cell attempts to efflux. To see whether such drugs could be used at lower concentrations with the same efficacy, it was first shown that microvesiculation of prostate cancer (PCa) cells, PC3, could be inhibited pharmacologically with calpeptin (calpain inhibitor) and by siRNA (CAPNS1). In cells treated with docetaxel (DTX), this inhibition resulted in a third-fold increase in intracellular concentrations of DTX. As a result, 20-fold lower concentrations of DTX (5 nM) could be used, in the presence of calpeptin (20 μM) inducing the same degree of apoptosis after 48 h in PC3 cells, as 100 nM of DTX alone. Inhibition of microvesiculation similarly improved combination chemotherapy (DTX and methotrexate). In a mouse xenograft model of PCa, DTX (0.1 mg/kg) together with calpeptin (10 mg/kg), administered i.p., significantly reduced tumor volumes compared to DTX alone (0.1 mg/kg) and brought about the same reductions in tumor growth as 10 mg/kg of DTX alone. As well as further reducing vascularization, it also increased apoptosis and reduced proliferation of PC3 cells in tumor xenografts.
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57
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Kholodkov OA, Budarina ZI, Andreeva-Kovalevskaya ZI, Siunov AV, Solonin AS. Effect of Bacillus cereus hemolysin II on hepatocyte cells. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s000368381502009x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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58
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Wolfmeier H, Schoenauer R, Atanassoff AP, Neill DR, Kadioglu A, Draeger A, Babiychuk EB. Ca²⁺-dependent repair of pneumolysin pores: A new paradigm for host cellular defense against bacterial pore-forming toxins. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2014; 1853:2045-54. [PMID: 25219550 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Pneumolysin (PLY), a key virulence factor of Streptococcus pneumoniae, permeabilizes eukaryotic cells by forming large trans-membrane pores. PLY imposes a puzzling multitude of diverse, often mutually excluding actions on eukaryotic cells. Whereas cytotoxicity of PLY can be directly attributed to the pore-mediated effects, mechanisms that are responsible for the PLY-induced activation of host cells are poorly understood. We show that PLY pores can be repaired and thereby PLY-induced cell death can be prevented. Pore-induced Ca²⁺ entry from the extracellular milieu is of paramount importance for the initiation of plasmalemmal repair. Nevertheless, active Ca²⁺ sequestration that prevents excessive Ca²⁺ elevation during the execution phase of plasmalemmal repair is of no less importance. The efficacy of plasmalemmal repair does not only define the fate of targeted cells but also intensity, duration and repetitiveness of PLY-induced Ca²⁺ signals in cells that were able to survive after PLY attack. Intracellular Ca²⁺ dynamics evoked by the combined action of pore formation and their elimination mimic the pattern of receptor-mediated Ca²⁺ signaling, which is responsible for the activation of host immune responses. Therefore, we postulate that plasmalemmal repair of PLY pores might provoke cellular responses that are similar to those currently ascribed to the receptor-mediated PLY effects. Our data provide new insights into the understanding of the complexity of cellular non-immune defense responses to a major pneumococcal toxin that plays a critical role in the establishment and the progression of life-threatening diseases. Therapies boosting plasmalemmal repair of host cells and their metabolic fitness might prove beneficial for the treatment of pneumococcal infections. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 13th European Symposium on Calcium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Wolfmeier
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Roman Schoenauer
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Alexander P Atanassoff
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Daniel R Neill
- Department of Clinical Infection Microbiology & Immunology, Institute of Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
| | - Aras Kadioglu
- Department of Clinical Infection Microbiology & Immunology, Institute of Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
| | - Annette Draeger
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland
| | - Eduard B Babiychuk
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000 Bern 9, Switzerland.
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59
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Draeger A, Schoenauer R, Atanassoff AP, Wolfmeier H, Babiychuk EB. Dealing with damage: plasma membrane repair mechanisms. Biochimie 2014; 107 Pt A:66-72. [PMID: 25183513 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2014.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Eukaryotic cells have developed repair mechanisms, which allow them to reseal their membrane in order to prevent the efflux of cytoplasmic constituents and the uncontrolled influx of calcium. After injury, the Ca(2+)-concentration gradient fulfils a dual function: it provides guidance cues for the repair machinery and directly activates the molecules, which have a repair function. Depending on the nature of injury, the morphology of the cell and the severity of injury, the membrane resealing can be effected by lysosomal exocytosis, microvesicle shedding or a combination of both. Likewise, exocytosis is often followed by the endocytic uptake of lesions. Additionally, since plasmalemmal resealing must be attempted, even after extensive injury in order to prevent cell lysis, the restoration of membrane integrity can be achieved by ceramide-driven invagination of the lipid bilayer, during which the cell is prepared for apoptotic disposal. Plasmalemmal injury can be contained by a surfeit of plasma membrane, which serves as a trap for toxic substances: either passively by an abundance of cellular protrusions, or actively by membrane blebbing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Draeger
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstr. 2, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Roman Schoenauer
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstr. 2, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alexander P Atanassoff
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstr. 2, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Heidi Wolfmeier
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstr. 2, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Eduard B Babiychuk
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstr. 2, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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