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Hage H, Rosso MN, Tarrago L. Distribution of methionine sulfoxide reductases in fungi and conservation of the free-methionine-R-sulfoxide reductase in multicellular eukaryotes. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 169:187-215. [PMID: 33865960 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Methionine, either as a free amino acid or included in proteins, can be oxidized into methionine sulfoxide (MetO), which exists as R and S diastereomers. Almost all characterized organisms possess thiol-oxidoreductases named methionine sulfoxide reductase (Msr) enzymes to reduce MetO back to Met. MsrA and MsrB reduce the S and R diastereomers of MetO, respectively, with strict stereospecificity and are found in almost all organisms. Another type of thiol-oxidoreductase, the free-methionine-R-sulfoxide reductase (fRMsr), identified so far in prokaryotes and a few unicellular eukaryotes, reduces the R MetO diastereomer of the free amino acid. Moreover, some bacteria possess molybdenum-containing enzymes that reduce MetO, either in the free or protein-bound forms. All these Msrs play important roles in the protection of organisms against oxidative stress. Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that colonize all niches on Earth and play fundamental functions, in organic matter recycling, as symbionts, or as pathogens of numerous organisms. However, our knowledge on fungal Msrs is still limited. Here, we performed a survey of msr genes in almost 700 genomes across the fungal kingdom. We show that most fungi possess one gene coding for each type of methionine sulfoxide reductase: MsrA, MsrB, and fRMsr. However, several fungi living in anaerobic environments or as obligate intracellular parasites were devoid of msr genes. Sequence inspection and phylogenetic analyses allowed us to identify non-canonical sequences with potentially novel enzymatic properties. Finaly, we identified several ocurences of msr horizontal gene transfer from bacteria to fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayat Hage
- Biodiversité et Biotechnologie Fongiques, UMR1163, INRAE, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Marie-Noëlle Rosso
- Biodiversité et Biotechnologie Fongiques, UMR1163, INRAE, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Lionel Tarrago
- Biodiversité et Biotechnologie Fongiques, UMR1163, INRAE, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France.
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Fontana DC, de Paula S, Torres AG, de Souza VHM, Pascholati SF, Schmidt D, Dourado Neto D. Endophytic Fungi: Biological Control and Induced Resistance to Phytopathogens and Abiotic Stresses. Pathogens 2021; 10:570. [PMID: 34066672 PMCID: PMC8151296 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant diseases cause losses of approximately 16% globally. Thus, management measures must be implemented to mitigate losses and guarantee food production. In addition to traditional management measures, induced resistance and biological control have gained ground in agriculture due to their enormous potential. Endophytic fungi internally colonize plant tissues and have the potential to act as control agents, such as biological agents or elicitors in the process of induced resistance and in attenuating abiotic stresses. In this review, we list the mode of action of this group of microorganisms which can act in controlling plant diseases and describe several examples in which endophytes were able to reduce the damage caused by pathogens and adverse conditions. This is due to their arsenal of molecules generated during the interaction by which they form a kind of biological shield in the plant. Furthermore, considering that endophytic fungi can be an important tool in managing for biotic and abiotic stresses due to the large amount of biologically active substances produced, bioprospecting this class of microorganisms is tending to increase and generate valuable products for agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Cristina Fontana
- Department of Plant Production, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (D.C.F.); (D.D.N.)
| | - Samuel de Paula
- Plant Pathology Department, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (A.G.T.); (V.H.M.d.S.); (S.F.P.)
| | - Abel Galon Torres
- Plant Pathology Department, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (A.G.T.); (V.H.M.d.S.); (S.F.P.)
| | - Victor Hugo Moura de Souza
- Plant Pathology Department, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (A.G.T.); (V.H.M.d.S.); (S.F.P.)
| | - Sérgio Florentino Pascholati
- Plant Pathology Department, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (A.G.T.); (V.H.M.d.S.); (S.F.P.)
| | - Denise Schmidt
- Department of Agronomy and Environmental Science, Frederico Westphalen Campus, Federal University of Santa Maria, Frederico Westphalen 98400000, Brazil;
| | - Durval Dourado Neto
- Department of Plant Production, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418900, Brazil; (D.C.F.); (D.D.N.)
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Establishment of a new and efficient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in the nematicidal fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum. Microbiol Res 2021; 249:126773. [PMID: 33940365 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2021.126773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Purpureocillium lilacinum (formerly Paecilomyces lilacinus) is widely commercialized for controlling plant-parasitic nematodes and represents a potential cell factory for enzyme production. This nematicidal fungus is intrinsically resistant to common antifungal agents used for genetic transformation. Therefore, molecular investigations in P. lilacinum are still limited so far. In the present study, we have established a new Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system in P. lilacinum based on the uridine/uracil auxotrophic mechanism. Here, uridine/uracil auxotrophic mutants were simply generated via UV irradiation instead of a complicated genetic approach for the pyrG gene deletion. A stable uridine/uracil auxotrophic mutant was then selected as a recipient for fungal transformation. We further indicated that the pyrG gene from Aspergillus niger can be used as a selectable marker for genetic transformation of P. lilacinum. Under optimized conditions for ATMT, the transformation efficiency reached 2873 ± 224 transformants per 106 spores. Using the constructed ATMT system, we succeeded in expressing the DsRed reporter gene in P. lilacinum. Additionally, we have identified a very promising mutant for chitinase production from a collection of T-DNA insertion transformants. This mutant possesses a special phenotype of hyper-branching mycelium and produces more conidia in comparison to the wild strain. Conclusively, our ATMT system can be exploited for overexpression of target genes or for T-DNA insertion mutagenesis in the agriculturally important fungus P. lilacinum. The genetic approach in the present work may also be applied for developing similar ATMT systems in other fungi, especially for fungi that their genome databases are currently not available.
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Gluck-Thaler E, Haridas S, Binder M, Grigoriev IV, Crous PW, Spatafora JW, Bushley K, Slot JC. The Architecture of Metabolism Maximizes Biosynthetic Diversity in the Largest Class of Fungi. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 37:2838-2856. [PMID: 32421770 PMCID: PMC7530617 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological diversity in fungi is largely defined by metabolic traits, including the ability to produce secondary or “specialized” metabolites (SMs) that mediate interactions with other organisms. Fungal SM pathways are frequently encoded in biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), which facilitate the identification and characterization of metabolic pathways. Variation in BGC composition reflects the diversity of their SM products. Recent studies have documented surprising diversity of BGC repertoires among isolates of the same fungal species, yet little is known about how this population-level variation is inherited across macroevolutionary timescales. Here, we applied a novel linkage-based algorithm to reveal previously unexplored dimensions of diversity in BGC composition, distribution, and repertoire across 101 species of Dothideomycetes, which are considered the most phylogenetically diverse class of fungi and known to produce many SMs. We predicted both complementary and overlapping sets of clustered genes compared with existing methods and identified novel gene pairs that associate with known secondary metabolite genes. We found that variation among sets of BGCs in individual genomes is due to nonoverlapping BGC combinations and that several BGCs have biased ecological distributions, consistent with niche-specific selection. We observed that total BGC diversity scales linearly with increasing repertoire size, suggesting that secondary metabolites have little structural redundancy in individual fungi. We project that there is substantial unsampled BGC diversity across specific families of Dothideomycetes, which will provide a roadmap for future sampling efforts. Our approach and findings lend new insight into how BGC diversity is generated and maintained across an entire fungal taxonomic class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emile Gluck-Thaler
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Sajeet Haridas
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA
| | | | - Igor V Grigoriev
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.,Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Pedro W Crous
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph W Spatafora
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
| | - Kathryn Bushley
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Jason C Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
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Fernández-Pastor I, González-Menéndez V, Annang F, Toro C, Mackenzie TA, Bosch-Navarrete C, Genilloud O, Reyes F. Pipecolisporin, a Novel Cyclic Peptide with Antimalarial and Antitrypanosome Activities from a Wheat Endophytic Nigrospora oryzae. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:268. [PMID: 33809512 PMCID: PMC8000807 DOI: 10.3390/ph14030268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel cyclic antimalarial and antitrypanosome hexapeptide, pipecolisporin (1), was isolated from cultures of Nigrospora oryzae CF-298113, a fungal endophyte isolated from roots of Triticum sp. collected in a traditional agricultural land of Montefrío, Granada, Spain. The structure of this compound, including its absolute configuration, was elucidated by HRMS, 1-D and 2-D NMR spectroscopy, and Marfey's analysis. This metabolite displayed interesting activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma cruzi, with IC50 values in the micromolar range, and no significant cytotoxicity against the human cancer cell lines A549, A2058, MCF7, MIA PaCa-2, and HepG2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Fernández-Pastor
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Victor González-Menéndez
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Frederick Annang
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Clara Toro
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Thomas A. Mackenzie
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Cristina Bosch-Navarrete
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra”, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Avda. del Conocimiento 17, Armilla, 18016 Granada, Spain;
| | - Olga Genilloud
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
| | - Fernando Reyes
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores de Andalucía, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avda. del Conocimiento 34, 18016 Granada, Spain; (I.F.-P.); (V.G.-M.); (F.A.); (C.T.); (T.A.M.); (O.G.)
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56
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Sagita R, Quax WJ, Haslinger K. Current State and Future Directions of Genetics and Genomics of Endophytic Fungi for Bioprospecting Efforts. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:649906. [PMID: 33791289 PMCID: PMC8005728 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.649906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The bioprospecting of secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi received great attention in the 1990s and 2000s, when the controversy around taxol production from Taxus spp. endophytes was at its height. Since then, hundreds of reports have described the isolation and characterization of putative secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi. However, only very few studies also report the genetic basis for these phenotypic observations. With low sequencing cost and fast sample turnaround, genetics- and genomics-based approaches have risen to become comprehensive approaches to study natural products from a wide-range of organisms, especially to elucidate underlying biosynthetic pathways. However, in the field of fungal endophyte biology, elucidation of biosynthetic pathways is still a major challenge. As a relatively poorly investigated group of microorganisms, even in the light of recent efforts to sequence more fungal genomes, such as the 1000 Fungal Genomes Project at the Joint Genome Institute (JGI), the basis for bioprospecting of enzymes and pathways from endophytic fungi is still rather slim. In this review we want to discuss the current approaches and tools used to associate phenotype and genotype to elucidate biosynthetic pathways of secondary metabolites in endophytic fungi through the lens of bioprospecting. This review will point out the reported successes and shortcomings, and discuss future directions in sampling, and genetics and genomics of endophytic fungi. Identifying responsible biosynthetic genes for the numerous secondary metabolites isolated from endophytic fungi opens the opportunity to explore the genetic potential of producer strains to discover novel secondary metabolites and enhance secondary metabolite production by metabolic engineering resulting in novel and more affordable medicines and food additives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kristina Haslinger
- Groningen Institute of Pharmacy, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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57
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Elsherbiny EA, Taher MA, Abd El-Aziz MH, Mohamed SY. Action mechanisms and biocontrol of Purpureocillium lilacinum against green mould caused by Penicillium digitatum in orange fruit. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:1378-1390. [PMID: 33484589 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The present study evaluated, for the first time, the inhibitory effects of the filtrate of Purpureocillium lilacinum against Penicillium digitatum. METHODS AND RESULTS No direct contact between P. lilacinum and P. digitatum was observed during the dual culture test and the inhibition zone was 6·1 mm. The filtrate of P. lilacinum completely inhibited P. digitatum growth and spore germination at the concentration of 64%. The filtrate increased the permeability of the cell membrane and the content of MDA in P. digitatum. The ergosterol content in P. digitatum was strongly inhibited at 32% by 81·1%. The green mould incidence and severity in filtrate-treated fruit at 64% were 71·7 and 80·7% lower than in the control, respectively. The filtrate enhanced the activity of PAL, PPO and POD enzymes in orange fruit. The POD and PAL gene expression levels were significantly upregulated in the fruit treated with the filtrate. CONCLUSIONS This study indicated that the antifungal mechanism of P. lilacinum filtrate against P. digitatum is mainly by the damage of the fungal cell membrane and its components. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This work provides the pioneer evidence on the application of P. lilacinum filtrate as a novel biocontrol agent for orange green mould.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Elsherbiny
- Plant Pathology Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - M A Taher
- Agricultural Chemistry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - M H Abd El-Aziz
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - S Y Mohamed
- Horticulture Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
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Wang G, Wang Y, Yang B, Zhang C, Zhang H, Xing F, Liu Y. Carbon Catabolite Repression Gene AoCreA Regulates Morphological Development and Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis Responding to Carbon Sources in Aspergillus ochraceus. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E697. [PMID: 33152993 PMCID: PMC7693787 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon is one of the most important nutrients for the development and secondary metabolism in fungi. CreA is the major transcriptional factor mediating carbon catabolite repression, which is employed in the utilization of carbon sources. Aspergillus ochraceus contaminates various food and feed containing different carbon sources by producing ochratoxin A (OTA). However, little is known about the function of AoCreA in regulating the morphology and OTA production of A. ochraceus. To give an insight into the mechanism of the carbon sources regulating development of A. ochraceus and OTA production, we have identified AoCreA in A. ochraceus. The homologous recombination strategy was used to generate the AoCreA deletion mutant (ΔAoCreA). We have investigated the morphology and OTA production of the wild type (WT) and ΔAoCreA of A. ochraceus with media containing different carbon sources (glucose, fructose, maltose, D-xylose, D-mannose, acetate, D-galactose, D-mannitol and lactose). ΔAoCreA showed a significant growth and conidiation defect on all media as compared with WT. Glucose and maltose were the most inducing media for OTA production by A. ochraceus, followed by sucrose and the nutrient-rich Yeast Extract Sucrose (YES) and Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The deletion of AoCreA led to a drastic reduction of OTA production on all kinds of media except PDA, which was supported by the expression profile of OTA biosynthetic genes. Furthermore, infection studies of ΔAoCreA on oats and pears showed the involvement of AoCreA in the pathogenicity of A. ochraceus. Thus, these results suggest that AoCreA regulates morphological development and OTA biosynthesis in response to carbon sources in A. ochraceus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yulong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Bolei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Chenxi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Haiyong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (G.W.); (Y.W.); (B.Y.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
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Functional Characterization of Core Regulatory Genes Involved in Sporulation of the Nematophagous Fungus Purpureocillium lavendulum. mSphere 2020; 5:5/5/e00932-20. [PMID: 33115838 PMCID: PMC8534313 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00932-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The nematophagous fungus Purpureocillium lavendulum is a natural enemy of plant-parasitic nematodes, which cause severe economic losses in agriculture worldwide. The production of asexual spores (conidia) in P. lavendulum is crucial for its biocontrol activity against nematodes. In this study, we characterized the core regulatory genes involved in conidiation of P. lavendulum at the molecular level. The central regulatory pathway is composed of three genes, P. lavendulumbrlA (PlbrlA), PlabaA, and PlwetA, which regulate the early, middle, and late stages of asexual development, respectively. The deletion of PlbrlA completely inhibited conidiation, with only conidiophore stalks produced. PlAbaA determines the differentiation of conidia from phialides. The deletion of PlwetA affected many phenotypes related to conidial maturation, including abscission of conidia from conidium strings, thickening of the cell wall layers, vacuole generation inside the cytoplasm, production of trehalose, tolerance to heat shock, etc. Comparative analyses showed that the upstream regulators of the core regulatory pathway of conidiation, especially the “fluffy” genes, were different from those in Aspergillus. Besides their roles in conidiation, the central regulators also influence the production of secondary metabolites, such as the leucinostatins, in P. lavendulum. Our study revealed a set of essential genes controlling conidiation in P. lavendulum and provided a framework for further molecular genetic studies on fungus-nematode interactions and for the biocontrol of plant-parasitic nematodes. IMPORTANCE Plant-parasitic nematodes cause serious damage to crops throughout the world. Purpureocillium lavendulum is a nematophagous fungus which is a natural enemy of nematodes and a potential biocontrol agent against plant-parasitic nematodes. The conidia play an important role during infection of nematodes. In this study, we identified and characterized genes involved in regulating asexual development of P. lavendulum. We found that these genes not only regulate conidiation but also influence secondary-metabolite production. This work provides a basis for future studies of fungus-nematode interactions and nematode biocontrol.
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Iqbal M, Broberg M, Haarith D, Broberg A, Bushley KE, Brandström Durling M, Viketoft M, Funck Jensen D, Dubey M, Karlsson M. Natural variation of root lesion nematode antagonism in the biocontrol fungus Clonostachys rosea and identification of biocontrol factors through genome-wide association mapping. Evol Appl 2020; 13:2264-2283. [PMID: 33005223 PMCID: PMC7513725 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological control is a promising approach to reduce plant diseases caused by nematodes to ensure high productivity in agricultural production. Large-scale analyses of genetic variation in fungal species used for biocontrol can generate knowledge regarding interaction mechanisms that can improve efficacy of biocontrol applications. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for in vitro antagonism against the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus penetrans in 53 previously genome re-sequenced strains of the biocontrol fungus Clonostachys rosea. Nematode mortality in C. rosea potato dextrose broth (PDB) culture filtrates was highly variable and showed continuous variation (p < .001) between strains, indicating a polygenic inheritance. Twenty-one strains produced culture filtrates with higher (p ≤ .05) nematode mortality compared with the PDB control treatment, while ten strains lowered (p ≤ .05) the mortality. The difference in in vitro antagonism against P. penetrans correlated with antagonism against the soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines, indicating lack of host specificity in C. rosea. An empirical Bayesian multiple hypothesis testing approach identified 279 single nucleotide polymorphism markers significantly (local false sign rate < 10-10) associated with the trait. Genes present in the genomic regions associated with nematicidal activity included several membrane transporters, a chitinase and genes encoding proteins predicted to biosynthesize secondary metabolites. Gene deletion strains of the predicted nonribosomal peptide synthetase genes nps4 and nps5 were generated and showed increased (p ≤ .001) fungal growth and conidiation rates compared to the wild type. Deletion strains also exhibited reduced (p < .001) nematicidal activity and reduced (p ≤ .05) biocontrol efficacy against nematode root disease and against fusarium foot rot on wheat. In summary, we show that the GWAS approach can be used to identify biocontrol factors in C. rosea, specifically the putative nonribosomal peptide synthetases NPS4 and NPS5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mudassir Iqbal
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Martin Broberg
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Deepak Haarith
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology University of Minnesota St. Paul MN USA
| | - Anders Broberg
- Department of Molecular Sciences Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Kathryn E Bushley
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology University of Minnesota St. Paul MN USA
| | - Mikael Brandström Durling
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Maria Viketoft
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Dan Funck Jensen
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Mukesh Dubey
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
| | - Magnus Karlsson
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Uppsala BioCenter Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
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Rogozhin EA, Vasilchenko AS, Barashkova AS, Smirnov AN, Zavriev SK, Demushkin VP. Peptide Extracts from Seven Medicinal Plants Discovered to Inhibit Oomycete Phytophthora infestans, a Causative Agent of Potato Late Blight Disease. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E1294. [PMID: 33007947 PMCID: PMC7599828 DOI: 10.3390/plants9101294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report the inhibitory effect of peptide extracts obtained from seven medicinal plants against a causative agent of late blight disease Phytophthora infestans. We find that all the extracts possess inhibitory activity toward the zoospores output, zoosporangium germination, and the development of P. infestans on potato disc tubers at different quantitative levels. Based on the biological effects detected, an extract of common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) biomass is recognized as the most effective and is selected for further structural analysis. We perform a combination of amino acid analysis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, which reveal the presence of Asn/Asp- and Gln/Glu-rich short peptides with molecular masses in the range of 500-900 Da and not exceeding 1500 Da as the maximum. Analytical anion-exchange HPLC is successfully applied for separation of the peptide extract from common horsetail (E. arvense). We collect nine dominant components that are combined in two groups with differences in retention times. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the prevalent compounds after analytical ion-exchange HPLC allows us to identify them as peptide fragments of functionally active proteins associated with photosynthesis, aquatic transport, and chitin binding. The anti-oomycete effects may be associated with the conversion of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase to produce a number of biologically active anionic peptides with possible regulatory functions. These data inform our knowledge regarding biologically active peptide fragments; they are the components of programmed or induced proteolysis of plant proteins and can realize secondary antimicrobial functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene A. Rogozhin
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institite of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.B.); (S.K.Z.); (V.P.D.)
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, 119021 Moscow, Russia
- All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, 196608 St.-Petersburg-Pushkin, Russia
| | - Alexey S. Vasilchenko
- Institute of Biological and Agricultural Biology (X-Bio) Tyumen State University, Russian Federation, 625003 Tyumen, Russia;
| | - Anna S. Barashkova
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institite of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.B.); (S.K.Z.); (V.P.D.)
- Institute of Biological and Agricultural Biology (X-Bio) Tyumen State University, Russian Federation, 625003 Tyumen, Russia;
| | - Alexey N. Smirnov
- Timiryazev Russian State Agrarian University, 127550 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Sergey K. Zavriev
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institite of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.B.); (S.K.Z.); (V.P.D.)
| | - Vladimir P. Demushkin
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institite of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.B.); (S.K.Z.); (V.P.D.)
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Daugavet MA, Shabelnikov SV, Podgornaya OI. Amino acid sequence associated with bacteriophage recombination site helps to reveal genes potentially acquired through horizontal gene transfer. BMC Bioinformatics 2020; 21:305. [PMID: 32703190 PMCID: PMC7379824 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-020-03599-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Horizontal gene transfer, i.e. the acquisition of genetic material from nonparent organism, is considered an important force driving species evolution. Many cases of horizontal gene transfer from prokaryotes to eukaryotes have been registered, but no transfer mechanism has been deciphered so far, although viruses were proposed as possible vectors in several studies. In agreement with this idea, in our previous study we discovered that in two eukaryotic proteins bacteriophage recombination site (AttP) was adjacent to the regions originating via horizontal gene transfer. In one of those cases AttP site was present inside the introns of cysteine-rich repeats. In the present study we aimed to apply computational tools for finding multiple horizontal gene transfer events in large genome databases. For that purpose we used a sequence of cysteine-rich repeats to identify genes potentially acquired through horizontal transfer. Results HMMER remote similarity search significantly detected 382 proteins containing cysteine-rich repeats. All of them, except 8 sequences, belong to eukaryotes. In 124 proteins the presence of conserved structural domains was predicted. In spite of the fact that cysteine-rich repeats are found almost exclusively in eukaryotic proteins, many predicted domains are most common for prokaryotes or bacteriophages. Ninety-eight proteins out of 124 contain typical prokaryotic domains. In those cases proteins were considered as potentially originating via horizontal transfer. In addition, HHblits search revealed that two domains of the same fungal protein, Glycoside hydrolase and Peptidase M15, have high similarity with proteins of two different prokaryotic species, hinting at independent horizontal gene transfer events. Conclusions Cysteine-rich repeats in eukaryotic proteins are usually accompanied by conserved domains typical for prokaryotes or bacteriophages. These proteins, containing both cysteine-rich repeats, and characteristic prokaryotic domains, might represent multiple independent horizontal gene transfer events from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. We believe that the presence of bacteriophage recombination site inside cysteine-rich repeat coding sequence may facilitate horizontal genes transfer. Thus computational approach, described in the present study, can help finding multiple sequences originated from horizontal transfer in eukaryotic genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Olga I Podgornaya
- Institute of Cytology, St. Petersburg, Russia, 194064.,School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia, 690090.,Department of Cytology and Histology, St. Pb State University, St. Petersburg, Russia, 199034
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63
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Kil YS, Risinger AL, Petersen CL, Mooberry SL, Cichewicz RH. Leucinostatins from Ophiocordyceps spp. and Purpureocillium spp. Demonstrate Selective Antiproliferative Effects in Cells Representing the Luminal Androgen Receptor Subtype of Triple Negative Breast Cancer. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:2010-2024. [PMID: 32510949 PMCID: PMC7704123 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The structures of four leucinostatin analogues (1-4) from Ophiocordyceps spp. and Purpureocillium spp. were determined together with six known leucinostatins [leucinostatins B (5), A (6), B2 (7), A2 (8), F (9), and D (10)]. The structures of the metabolites were established using a combination of analytical methods including HRESIMS and MS/MS experiments, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, chiral HPLC, and advanced Marfey's analysis of the acid hydrolysate, as well as additional empirical and chemical methods. Compounds 1-10 were evaluated for their biological effects on triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. Leucinostatins 1-10 showed selective cytostatic activities in MDA-MB-453 and SUM185PE cells representing the luminal androgen receptor subtype of TNBC. This selective activity motivated further investigation into the mechanism of action of leucinostatin B (5). The results demonstrate that this peptidic fungal metabolite rapidly inhibits mTORC1 signaling in leucinostatin-sensitive TNBC cell lines, but not in leucinostatin-resistant cells. Leucinostatins have been shown to repress mitochondrial respiration through inhibition of the ATP synthase, and we demonstrated that both the mTORC1 signaling and LAR-selective activities of 5 were recapitulated by oligomycin. Thus, inhibition of the ATP synthase with either leucinostatin B or oligomycin is sufficient to selectively impede mTORC1 signaling and inhibit the growth of LAR-subtype cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Seo Kil
- Natural Products Discovery Group, Institute for Natural Products Applications and Research Technologies, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Science Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 102 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - April L. Risinger
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
- Mays Cancer Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
| | - Cora L. Petersen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
| | - Susan L. Mooberry
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
- Mays Cancer Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
- Corresponding Author: Tel: 210-567-4788. Fax: 210-567-4300. ., Tel: 405-325-6969. Fax: 405-325-6111.
| | - Robert H. Cichewicz
- Natural Products Discovery Group, Institute for Natural Products Applications and Research Technologies, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Science Research Center, University of Oklahoma, 102 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
- Corresponding Author: Tel: 210-567-4788. Fax: 210-567-4300. ., Tel: 405-325-6969. Fax: 405-325-6111.
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Liu R, Khan RAA, Yue Q, Jiao Y, Yang Y, Li Y, Xie B. Discovery of a new antifungal lipopeptaibol from Purpureocillium lilacinum using MALDI-TOF-IMS. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 527:689-695. [PMID: 32423807 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungi are considered to be rich in biologically active natural products for agricultural and medicinal purposes. The discovery and accurate identification of the bioactive fungal natural products is important for their efficient utilization. During the course of our continuing search for the new natural products from the fungal agents, we found the well-known bio-control fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum showed in vitro activity against Botrytis cinerea, an airborne plant pathogenic fungus causing gray mold disease in many vegetables and fruits. The co-culture of two fungi on agar plate showed that P. lilacinum inhibited the growth of B. cinerea which means P. lilacinum has potential to produce some bioactive secondary metabolites against B. cinerea. In this study, we applied matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-IMS), as a fast identification tool, for the discovery of a new antifungal lipopeptaibol (leucinostatin Z) from P. lilacinum against B. cinerea. The planar structure of leucinostatin Z was further established by using the LC-HRESI-MS-MS analysis. MALDI-TOF-IMS is becoming a new approach that allows us to observe the bioactive natural products directly on growth media between the colonies of two fungi, which is faster and more effective than the traditional techniques to discover new bioactive compounds in fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Raja Asad Ali Khan
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Qun Yue
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yang Jiao
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yuhong Yang
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yan Li
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Bingyan Xie
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
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65
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Haarith D, Bushley KE, Chen S. Fungal communities associated with Heterodera glycines and their potential in biological control: a current update. J Nematol 2020; 52:1-17. [PMID: 32180383 PMCID: PMC7266048 DOI: 10.21307/jofnem-2020-022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is the most important pest on soybean, a major crop worldwide. The SCN is considered both parasitic and pathogenic as it derives nutrition from the host and manipulates host physiology to do so. Currently, there are no commercially available chemicals that are specific, environmentally safe and cost effective to control SCN levels. Crop rotation, use of host resistance and other cultural practices remain the main management strategies. The need for bioprospecting other methods of controlling SCN is paramount, and fungi show promise in that respect. Several studies have evaluated fungi and fungal products as biocontrol options against plant-parasitic nematodes. This review discusses fungal genera isolated from the SCN with potential for use as biocontrol agents and the effects of their secondary metabolites on various stages of SCN development. The review also summarizes efforts to control SCN using soil amendments that could potentially impact fungal communities in the soil. The soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is the most important pest on soybean, a major crop worldwide. The SCN is considered both parasitic and pathogenic as it derives nutrition from the host and manipulates host physiology to do so. Currently, there are no commercially available chemicals that are specific, environmentally safe and cost effective to control SCN levels. Crop rotation, use of host resistance and other cultural practices remain the main management strategies. The need for bioprospecting other methods of controlling SCN is paramount, and fungi show promise in that respect. Several studies have evaluated fungi and fungal products as biocontrol options against plant-parasitic nematodes. This review discusses fungal genera isolated from the SCN with potential for use as biocontrol agents and the effects of their secondary metabolites on various stages of SCN development. The review also summarizes efforts to control SCN using soil amendments that could potentially impact fungal communities in the soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Haarith
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Kathryn E. Bushley
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Senyu Chen
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
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66
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Rahnama M, Maclean P, Fleetwood DJ, Johnson RD. VelA and LaeA are Key Regulators of Epichloë festucae Transcriptomic Response during Symbiosis with Perennial Ryegrass. Microorganisms 2019; 8:microorganisms8010033. [PMID: 31878026 PMCID: PMC7023048 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8010033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
VelA (or VeA) is a key global regulator in fungal secondary metabolism and development which we previously showed is required during the symbiotic interaction of Epichloë festucae with perennial ryegrass. In this study, comparative transcriptomic analyses of ∆velA mutant compared to wild-type E. festucae, under three different conditions (in culture, infected seedlings, and infected mature plants), were performed to investigate the impact of VelA on E. festucae transcriptome. These comparative transcriptomic studies showed that VelA regulates the expression of genes encoding proteins involved in membrane transport, fungal cell wall biosynthesis, host cell wall degradation, and secondary metabolism, along with a number of small secreted proteins and a large number of proteins with no predictable functions. In addition, these results were compared with previous transcriptomic experiments that studied the impact of LaeA, another key global regulator of secondary metabolism and development that we have shown is important for E. festucae–perennial ryegrass interaction. The results showed that although VelA and LaeA regulate a subset of E. festucae genes in a similar manner, they also regulated many other genes independently of each other suggesting specialised roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Rahnama
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (P.M.); (D.J.F.)
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- Correspondence: (M.R.); (R.D.J.)
| | - Paul Maclean
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (P.M.); (D.J.F.)
| | - Damien J. Fleetwood
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (P.M.); (D.J.F.)
- Biotelliga Ltd, Auckland 1052, New Zealand
| | - Richard D. Johnson
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (P.M.); (D.J.F.)
- Correspondence: (M.R.); (R.D.J.)
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67
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Li J, Zhang G, Yu H, Huang L, Zeng W, Wang Y. Complete mitochondrial genome of the important bio-control fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) and its phylogenetic analysis. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA PART B-RESOURCES 2019; 5:240-242. [PMID: 33366504 PMCID: PMC7748819 DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2019.1699466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Purpureocillium lilacinum is widely used as commercialized bio-control agents for controlling plant parasitic nematodes, as well as other insects and plant pathogens. In this study, the complete mitogenome of P. lilacinum was determined using the next-generation sequencing technology. The mitogenome is a circular molecule of 23,495 bp containing 15 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNA (rnl and rns) genes and 22 tRNA genes. The overall base composition is 35.5% A, 36.0% T, 12.9% C and 15.6% G, with a CG content of 28.5%. Phylogenetic analysis inferred from 14 concatenated PCGs of 47 taxa shows that P. lilacinum is clustered with the genus Tolypocladium of Ophiocordycipitaceae and forms a separate clade with strong statistical support. This study contributes to our understanding about sytematics and evolutionary biology of cordycipitoid fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Li
- Sanqi College, Wenshan University, Wenshan, China
| | - Guodong Zhang
- Yunnan Herbal Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.,The International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Cordyceps Bioresources in China and Southeast Asia, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.,The Research Center of Cordyceps Development and Utilization of Kunming, Yunnan Herbal Biotech Co. Ltd, Kunming, China
| | - Hong Yu
- Yunnan Herbal Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.,The International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Cordyceps Bioresources in China and Southeast Asia, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
| | - Luodong Huang
- College of Life Science and Tecnology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Wenbo Zeng
- Wenshan Biological Resources Development and Research Center, Wenshan University, Wenshan, China
| | - Yuanbing Wang
- Yunnan Herbal Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.,The International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Cordyceps Bioresources in China and Southeast Asia, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.,The Research Center of Cordyceps Development and Utilization of Kunming, Yunnan Herbal Biotech Co. Ltd, Kunming, China
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Wang G, Zhang H, Wang Y, Liu F, Li E, Ma J, Yang B, Zhang C, Li L, Liu Y. Requirement of LaeA, VeA, and VelB on Asexual Development, Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis, and Fungal Virulence in Aspergillus ochraceus. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2759. [PMID: 31849898 PMCID: PMC6892948 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus ochraceus is reported to be the major contributor of ochratoxin A (OTA), classified as one of the possible human carcinogen (group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The heterotrimeric velvet complex proteins, LaeA/VeA/VelB, have been most studied in fungi to clarify the relation between light-dependent morphology and secondary metabolism. To explore possible genetic targets to control OTA contamination, we have identified laeA, veA, and velB in A. ochraceus. The loss of laeA, veA, and velB yielded mutants with differences in vegetative growth and conidial production. Especially, ΔlaeA almost lost the ability to generate conidiaphore under dark condition. The deletion of laeA, veA, and velB drastically reduced the production of OTA. The wild-type A. ochraceus produced about 1 and 7 μg/cm2 OTA under light and dark conditions on media, whereas the three gene deletion mutants produced less than 20 ng/cm2 OTA, which was correlated with a down regulation of OTA biosynthetic genes. Pathogenicity studies of ΔlaeA, ΔveA, and ΔvelB showed their reduction in disease severity in pears. Furthermore, 66.1% of the backbone genes in secondary metabolite gene cluster were significantly regulated, among which 81.6% were downregulated. Taking together, these results revealed that velvet complex proteins played crucial roles in asexual development, secondary metabolism, and fungal virulence in A. ochraceus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haiyong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yulong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Erfeng Li
- Horticulture and Landscape College, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, China
| | - Junning Ma
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bolei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chenxi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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Gu CX, Zhang BL, Bai WW, Liu J, Zhou W, Ling ZQ, Lu Y, Xu L, Wan YJ. Characterization of the endothiapepsin-like protein in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana and its virulence effect on the silkworm, Bombyx mori. J Invertebr Pathol 2019; 169:107277. [PMID: 31715184 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2019.107277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Endothiapepsin is an aspartic proteinase that was first isolated from the plant pathogenic fungus Endothia parasitica. In previous studies, we reported on three endothiapepsin-like proteins in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana; the genes were up-regulated in B. bassiana hyper-virulent strain GXsk1011 at early stage infection in the silkworm. However, whether these proteins play a role in pathogenicity or not remains unknown. In this study, we cloned one protein, BbepnL-1 gene (BBA-07766), that has 98% homology with B. bassiana strain Bb2860, and expressed it in the yeast Pichia pastoris to investigate its function. The endothiapepsin-like protein is a secreted proteinase of molecular weight approximately 40 kDa. It has an N-glycosylation site and a mutation in the C-terminal conserved domain- a Thr was mutated to Gly in B. bassiana GXsk1011 and is different than the endothiapepsin of Endothia parasitica. The recombinant endothiapepsin-like protein showed enzyme activity and degraded the protein components of the silkworm cuticle. To further investigate the activity of the endothiapepsin-like protein, we knocked out the gene BbepnL-1 and showed that the loss of BbepnL-1 reduced the virulence in the silkworm. These results demonstrated that the endothiapepsin-like protein of B. bassiana is a virulence factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Xia Gu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Bao-Ling Zhang
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Wen-Wen Bai
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Zi-Qi Ling
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Yan Lu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Liang Xu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Yong-Ji Wan
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology and Applied Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China.
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70
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Xin C, Xing X, Wang F, Liu J, Ran Z, Chen W, Wang G, Song Z. MrMid2, encoding a cell wall stress sensor protein, is required for conidium production, stress tolerance, microsclerotium formation and virulence in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium rileyi. Fungal Genet Biol 2019; 134:103278. [PMID: 31610212 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2019.103278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Transmembrane proteins as sensors encoded by fungal genes activate specific intracellular signal pathways in response to stress cues to help the fungus survive in a changing environment. To better understand the role of the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium rileyi, an ortholog encoding the transmembrane protein Mid2, MrMid2, was identified and characterized functionally. Transcriptional analysis indicated that MrMid2 was involved in dimorphic transition, conidiation, and microsclerotium formation. After a targeted deletion of MrMid2, all three traits were impaired. Compared with the wild-type strain, the △MrMid2 mutants were hypersensitive to thermal stress, and cell wall and oxidative stress. Insect bioassays revealed that △MrMid2 mutants had decreased virulence levels following topical (22.5%) and injection bioassays (38.7%). Furthermore, transcription analysis showed that other genes of the CWI pathway, with the exception of another major sensor protein encoding gene, MrWsc1, were down-regulated in △MrMid2 mutants. These results suggest that MrMid2 plays important roles in dimorphic transition, conidiation, the stress response, virulence, and microsclerotium development in M. rileyi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiyan Xin
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaorui Xing
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Fen Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiexing Liu
- Department of Geriatrics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuonan Ran
- Department of Geriatrics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenbi Chen
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangxi Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhangyong Song
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, People's Republic of China.
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Genome sequence of Isaria javanica and comparative genome analysis insights into family S53 peptidase evolution in fungal entomopathogens. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:7111-7128. [PMID: 31273397 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09997-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The fungus Isaria javanica is an important entomopathogen that parasitizes various insects and is effective for pest control. In this study, we sequenced and assembled the genomes (IJ1G and IJ2G) of two I. javanica strains isolated from different insects. The genomes were approximately 35 Mb in size with 11,441 and 11,143 protein-coding genes, respectively. Using a phylogenomic approach, we evaluated genome evolution across five entomopathogenic fungi in Cordycipitaceae. By comparative genome analysis, it was found that family S53 serine peptidases were expanded in Cordycipitaceae entomopathogens, particularly in I. javanica. Gene duplication events were identified based on phylogenetic relationships inferred from 82 S53 peptidases within six entomopathogenic fungal genomes. Moreover, we found that carbohydrate-active enzymes and proteinases were the largest secretory protein groups encoded in the I. javanica genome, especially chitinases (GH18), serine and aspartic peptidases (S53, S08, S10, A01). Pathogenesis-related genes and genes for bacterial-like toxins and secondary metabolites were also identified. By comparative transcriptome analysis, differentially expressed genes in response to insect nutrients (in vitro) were identified. Moreover, most S53 peptidases were detected to be significantly upregulated during the initial fungal infection process in insects (in vivo) by RT-qPCR. Our results provide new clues about understanding evolution of pathogenic proteases and may suggest that abundant S53 peptidases in the I. javanica genome may contribute to its effective parasitism on various insects.
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72
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Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of the Cyclophilin Gene Family in the Nematophagous Fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20122978. [PMID: 31216716 PMCID: PMC6627767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20122978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpureocillium lilacinum has been widely used as a commercial biocontrol agent for the control of plant parasitic nematodes. Whole genome analysis promotes the identification of functional genes and the exploration of their molecular mechanisms. The Cyclophilin (CYP) gene family belongs to the immunophillin superfamily, and has a conserved cyclophilin-like domain (CLD). CYPs are widely identified in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and can be divided into single- and multi-domain proteins. In the present study, 10 CYP genes possessing the CLD, named PlCYP1-P10, were identified from the genome of P. lilacinum strain 36-1. Those 10 PlCYPs were predicted to have different cellular localizations in P. lilacinum. Phylogenetic and gene structure analysis revealed the evolutionary differentiation of CYPs between Ascomycotina and Saccharomycotina fungi, but conservation within the Ascomycotina fungi. Motif and gene structure distributions further support the result of phylogenetic analysis. Each PlCYP gene had a specific expression pattern in different development stages of P. lilacinum and its parasitism stage on eggs of Meloidogyne incognita. In addition, the 10 PlCYP genes exhibited different expression abundances in response to abiotic stresses, among which PlCYP4 was highly expressed at a high temperature (35 °C), while PlCYP6 was up-regulated under 5 mM of H2O2 stress. Furthermore, the heterologous expression of PlCYP4 and PlCYP6 in Escherichia coli enhanced the cellular tolerance against a high temperature and H2O2. In summary, our study indicates the potential functions of PlCYPs in virulence and the stress response, and also provides a frame for further analysis of the CYP gene family in Ascomycotina fungi.
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73
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Functional genetic analysis of the leucinostatin biosynthesis transcription regulator lcsL in Purpureocillium lilacinum using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:6187-6194. [PMID: 31175427 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09945-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Purpureocillium lilacinum is a promising commercial agent for controlling plant-parasitic nematodes and plant pathogens. Leucinostatins are a family of lipopeptides produced by P. lilacinum that are synthesized, modified, and regulated by a gene cluster consisting of 20 genes. Sequence analyses have indicated that lcsL, a gene in the lcs cluster, is a putative bZIP transcription factor. In this study, the CRISPR-Cas9 system was introduced to increase the efficiency of homologous recombination for the disruption of lcsL. The expression of genes in the cluster was significantly reduced in lcsL disruption mutants, and the output of leucinostatins was decreased to undetectable levels. In the lcsL overexpression strain, the expression of genes in the cluster and the yield of leucinostatins were all increased. The antagonism of both the wild type and mutant against Phytophthora infestans was also consistent with the gene expression and the output of leucinostatins. These results indicate that the gene lcsL is crucial for the regulating the synthesis of leucinostatins.
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74
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Momose I, Onodera T, Doi H, Adachi H, Iijima M, Yamazaki Y, Sawa R, Kubota Y, Igarashi M, Kawada M. Leucinostatin Y: A Peptaibiotic Produced by the Entomoparasitic Fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum 40-H-28. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:1120-1127. [PMID: 31017786 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b00839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Leucinostatin Y, a new peptaibiotic, was isolated from the culture broth of the entomoparasitic fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum 40-H-28. The planar structure was elucidated by detailed analysis of its NMR and MS/MS data. The absolute configurations of the amino acids were partially determined by an advanced Marfey's method. The biological activities of leucinostatin Y were assessed using human pancreatic cancer cells, revealing the importance of the C-terminus of leucinostatins for preferential cytotoxicity to cancer cells under glucose-deprived conditions and inhibition of mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isao Momose
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Takefumi Onodera
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Doi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Hayamitsu Adachi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Masatomi Iijima
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Yohko Yamazaki
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
| | - Ryuichi Sawa
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Tokyo, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki , Shinagawa-ku , Tokyo 141-0021 , Japan
| | - Yumiko Kubota
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Tokyo, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki , Shinagawa-ku , Tokyo 141-0021 , Japan
| | - Masayuki Igarashi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Tokyo, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki , Shinagawa-ku , Tokyo 141-0021 , Japan
| | - Manabu Kawada
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Numazu, 18-24 Miyamoto , Numazu-shi , Shizuoka 410-0301 , Japan
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN) , Tokyo, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki , Shinagawa-ku , Tokyo 141-0021 , Japan
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75
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Toju H, Tanaka Y. Consortia of anti-nematode fungi and bacteria in the rhizosphere of soybean plants attacked by root-knot nematodes. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:181693. [PMID: 31032023 PMCID: PMC6458363 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cyst and root-knot nematodes are major risk factors of agroecosystem management, often causing devastating impacts on crop production. The use of microbes that parasitize or prey on nematodes has been considered as a promising approach for suppressing phytopathogenic nematode populations. However, effects and persistence of those biological control agents often vary substantially depending on regions, soil characteristics and agricultural practices: more insights into microbial community processes are required to develop reproducible control of nematode populations. By performing high-throughput sequencing profiling of bacteria and fungi, we examined how root and soil microbiomes differ between benign and nematode-infected plant individuals in a soybean field in Japan. Results indicated that various taxonomic groups of bacteria and fungi occurred preferentially on the soybean individuals infected by root-knot nematodes or those uninfected by nematodes. Based on a network analysis of potential microbe-microbe associations, we further found that several fungal taxa potentially preying on nematodes (Dactylellina (Orbiliales), Rhizophydium (Rhizophydiales), Clonostachys (Hypocreales), Pochonia (Hypocreales) and Purpureocillium (Hypocreales)) co-occurred in the soybean rhizosphere at a small spatial scale. This study suggests how 'consortia' of anti-nematode microbes can derive from indigenous (resident) microbiomes, providing basic information for managing anti-nematode microbial communities in agroecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Toju
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Otsu, Shiga 520-2133, Japan
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Yu Tanaka
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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76
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Ponizovskaya VB, Rebrikova NL, Kachalkin AV, Antropova AB, Bilanenko EN, Mokeeva VL. Micromycetes as colonizers of mineral building materials in historic monuments and museums. Fungal Biol 2019; 123:290-306. [PMID: 30928038 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Complex of microfungi colonizing mineral building materials, i.e. limestone and plaster, in interiors of cultural heritage was characterized. Wide-scale investigation was carried out with fourteen objects studied. We have revealed a specific culturable community. We have analyzed role of obtained microfungi in biodeterioraton process on the basis of our tests (pH and water activity preferences, ability to solubilize CaCO3) and literature data (substrate preferences and enzyme activities). The species most actively developing in mineral materials in indoor environments were Acremonium charticola, Acremonium furcatum, Lecanicillium sp., Parengyodontium album, Purpureocillium lilacinum and Sarocladium kiliense. Considering this fact and their ability to develop successfully at extremely wide range of pH values from slightly acidic to alkaline ones and their high enzymatic activities we conclude that the listed species are of high interest in seeking the cause of biodeterioration. These species can actively develop in materials penetrating for years deep into the substrates and causing their deterioration in conditions of considerably heightened moisture content. In this group, A. charticola and Lecanicillium sp. were able to solubilize CaCO3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria B Ponizovskaya
- Department of Mycology and Algology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Natalia L Rebrikova
- State Research Institute for Restauration, 44-1 Gastello, 107014 Moscow, Russia
| | - Aleksey V Kachalkin
- Department of Soil Biology, Faculty of Soil Science, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; All-Russian Collection of Microorganisms, G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms RAS, 5 Pr. Nauki, 142290 Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia
| | - Anna B Antropova
- Mechnikov Research Institute for Vaccines and Sera, 5a Malyy Kazennyy Pereulok, 105064 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena N Bilanenko
- Department of Mycology and Algology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vera L Mokeeva
- Department of Mycology and Algology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia
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77
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Liu H, Pan F, Han X, Song F, Zhang Z, Yan J, Xu Y. Response of Soil Fungal Community Structure to Long-Term Continuous Soybean Cropping. Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3316. [PMID: 30687292 PMCID: PMC6333693 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term continuous soybean cropping can lead to the aggravation of soil fungal disease. However, the manner in which the fungal community and functional groups of fungi are affected by continuous soybean cropping remains unclear. We investigated the fungal abundance, composition and diversity during soybean rotation (RS), 2-year (SS) and long-term (CS) continuous soybean cropping systems using quantitative real-time PCR and high-throughput sequencing. The results showed that the fungal abundance was significantly higher in CS than in SS and RS. CS altered the fungal composition. Compared with RS, SS had an increase of 29 and a decrease of 12 genera in fungal relative abundance, and CS increased 38 and decreased 17 genera. The Shannon index was significantly higher in CS and SS than in RS. The result of principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) showed that CS and SS grouped together and were clearly separated from RS on the PCoA1. A total of 32 features accounted for the differences in fungal composition across RS, SS, and CS. The relative abundance of 10 potentially pathogenic and 10 potentially beneficial fungi changed, and most of their relative abundances dramatically increased in SS and CS compared with RS. Our study indicated that CS results in selective stress on pathogenic and beneficial fungi and causes the development of the fungal community structure that is antagonistic to plant health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Liu
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fengjuan Pan
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaozeng Han
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Fengbin Song
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Zhiming Zhang
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jun Yan
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yanli Xu
- National Observation Station of Hailun Agro-ecology System, Key Laboratory of Mollisols Agroecology, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Harbin, China
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78
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Mullowney MW, McClure RA, Robey MT, Kelleher NL, Thomson RJ. Natural products from thioester reductase containing biosynthetic pathways. Nat Prod Rep 2018; 35:847-878. [PMID: 29916519 PMCID: PMC6146020 DOI: 10.1039/c8np00013a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2018 Thioester reductase domains catalyze two- and four-electron reductions to release natural products following assembly on nonribosomal peptide synthetases, polyketide synthases, and their hybrid biosynthetic complexes. This reductive off-loading of a natural product yields an aldehyde or alcohol, can initiate the formation of a macrocyclic imine, and contributes to important intermediates in a variety of biosyntheses, including those for polyketide alkaloids and pyrrolobenzodiazepines. Compounds that arise from reductase-terminated biosynthetic gene clusters are often reactive and exhibit biological activity. Biomedically important examples include the cancer therapeutic Yondelis (ecteinascidin 743), peptide aldehydes that inspired the first therapeutic proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, and numerous synthetic derivatives and antibody drug conjugates of the pyrrolobenzodiazepines. Recent advances in microbial genomics, metabolomics, bioinformatics, and reactivity-based labeling have facilitated the detection of these compounds for targeted isolation. Herein, we summarize known natural products arising from this important category, highlighting their occurrence in Nature, biosyntheses, biological activities, and the technologies used for their detection and identification. Additionally, we review publicly available genomic data to highlight the remaining potential for novel reductively tailored compounds and drug leads from microorganisms. This thorough retrospective highlights various molecular families with especially privileged bioactivity while illuminating challenges and prospects toward accelerating the discovery of new, high value natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Mullowney
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
| | - Ryan A McClure
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
| | - Matthew T Robey
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, 2205 Tech Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Neil L Kelleher
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA. and Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, 2205 Tech Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Regan J Thomson
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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79
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Kobmoo N, Wichadakul D, Arnamnart N, Rodríguez De La Vega RC, Luangsa-ard JJ, Giraud T. A genome scan of diversifying selection inOphiocordycepszombie-ant fungi suggests a role for enterotoxins in co-evolution and host specificity. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:3582-3598. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noppol Kobmoo
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution; Université Paris-Sud; CNRS; AgroParisTech; Université Paris-Saclay; Orsay France
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | - Duangdao Wichadakul
- Chulalongkorn University Big Data Analytics and IoT Center (CUBIC); Department of Computer Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Systems Biology; Faculty of Medicine; Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok Thailand
| | - Nuntanat Arnamnart
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | | | - Janet J. Luangsa-ard
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC); National Science and Development Agency (NSTDA); Klhong Luang Thailand
| | - Tatiana Giraud
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution; Université Paris-Sud; CNRS; AgroParisTech; Université Paris-Saclay; Orsay France
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80
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Wang Y, Hu X, Fang Y, Anchieta A, Goldman PH, Hernandez G, Klosterman SJ. Transcription factor VdCmr1 is required for pigment production, protection from UV irradiation, and regulates expression of melanin biosynthetic genes in Verticillium dahliae. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2018; 164:685-696. [PMID: 29485393 PMCID: PMC5982140 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Verticillium dahliae is a soilborne fungus that causes vascular wilt diseases on numerous plant species worldwide. The production of darkly melanized microsclerotia is crucial in the disease cycle of V. dahliae, as these structures allow for long-term survival in soil. Previously, transcriptomic and genomic analysis identified a cluster of genes in V. dahliae that encodes some dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin biosynthetic pathway homologues found in related fungi. In this study, we explored the roles of cluster-specific transcription factor VdCmr1, as well as two other genes within the cluster encoding a polyketide synthase (VdPKS1) and a laccase (VdLac1), enzymes at initial and endpoint steps in DHN melanin production. The results revealed that VdCmr1 and VdPKS1 are required for melanin production, but neither is required for microsclerotia production. None of the three genes were required for pathogenesis on tobacco and lettuce. Exposure of ΔVdCmr1 and wild-type strains to UV irradiation, or to high temperature (40 °C), revealed an approx. 50 % reduction of survival in the ΔVdCmr1 strain, relative to the wild-type strain, in response to either condition. Expression profiles revealed that expression of some melanin biosynthetic genes are in part dependent on VdCmr1. Combined data indicate VdCmr1 is a key regulator of melanin biosynthesis, and that via regulation of melanogenesis, VdCmr1 affects survival of V. dahliae in response to abiotic threats. We conclude with a model showing regulation of VdCmr1 by a high osmolarity glycerol response (Hog)-type MAP kinase pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonglin Wang
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, PR China
| | - Yulin Fang
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Amy Anchieta
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1636 E. Alisal St., Salinas, CA 93905, USA
| | - Polly H. Goldman
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1636 E. Alisal St., Salinas, CA 93905, USA
| | - Gustavo Hernandez
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1636 E. Alisal St., Salinas, CA 93905, USA
| | - Steven J. Klosterman
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1636 E. Alisal St., Salinas, CA 93905, USA
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81
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Lin R, Qin F, Shen B, Shi Q, Liu C, Zhang X, Jiao Y, Lu J, Gao Y, Suarez-Fernandez M, Lopez-Moya F, Lopez-Llorca LV, Wang G, Mao Z, Ling J, Yang Y, Cheng X, Xie B. Genome and secretome analysis of Pochonia chlamydosporia provide new insight into egg-parasitic mechanisms. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1123. [PMID: 29348510 PMCID: PMC5773674 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19169-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pochonia chlamydosporia infects eggs and females of economically important plant-parasitic nematodes. The fungal isolates parasitizing different nematodes are genetically distinct. To understand their intraspecific genetic differentiation, parasitic mechanisms, and adaptive evolution, we assembled seven putative chromosomes of P. chlamydosporia strain 170 isolated from root-knot nematode eggs (~44 Mb, including 7.19% of transposable elements) and compared them with the genome of the strain 123 (~41 Mb) isolated from cereal cyst nematode. We focus on secretomes of the fungus, which play important roles in pathogenicity and fungus-host/environment interactions, and identified 1,750 secreted proteins, with a high proportion of carboxypeptidases, subtilisins, and chitinases. We analyzed the phylogenies of these genes and predicted new pathogenic molecules. By comparative transcriptome analysis, we found that secreted proteins involved in responses to nutrient stress are mainly comprised of proteases and glycoside hydrolases. Moreover, 32 secreted proteins undergoing positive selection and 71 duplicated gene pairs encoding secreted proteins are identified. Two duplicated pairs encoding secreted glycosyl hydrolases (GH30), which may be related to fungal endophytic process and lost in many insect-pathogenic fungi but exist in nematophagous fungi, are putatively acquired from bacteria by horizontal gene transfer. The results help understanding genetic origins and evolution of parasitism-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runmao Lin
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feifei Qin
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Baoming Shen
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qianqian Shi
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chichuan Liu
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Jiao
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Lu
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yaoyao Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Marta Suarez-Fernandez
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Marine Sciences and Applied Biology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Federico Lopez-Moya
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Marine Sciences and Applied Biology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Luis Vicente Lopez-Llorca
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Marine Sciences and Applied Biology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Gang Wang
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenchuan Mao
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Ling
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuhong Yang
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyue Cheng
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China. .,Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Beijing, China.
| | - Bingyan Xie
- Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. .,Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China.
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Sobreira ACM, Pinto FDCL, Florêncio KGD, Wilke DV, Staats CC, Streit RDAS, Freire FDCDO, Pessoa ODL, Trindade-Silva AE, Canuto KM. Endophytic fungus Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum produces cyclopeptides and plant-related bioactive rotenoids. RSC Adv 2018; 8:35575-35586. [PMID: 35547902 PMCID: PMC9088075 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra06824k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we integrated liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and high-throughput DNA sequencing for prospecting cytotoxic specialized metabolites from Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum, an endophytic fungus associated to the medicinal plant Myracrodruon urundeuva. LC-HRMS profiling allowed identifying putatively eleven compounds in the ethyl acetate extract from P. stromaticum broth. Additionally, a chemical fractionation guided by cytotoxicity combined with spectrometric analysis resulted in the isolation of three compounds: the cyclopeptide cyclo-l-Phe-d-Leu-l-Leu-l-Leu-l-lle along with the known rotenoids rotenolone and tephrosin. MTT assay showed that tephrosin (IC50 0.51 μg mL−1) has strong cytotoxic effect and may be pointed out as the compound responsible for the antiproliferative activity of P. stromaticum. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) and genome mining of P. stromaticum draft genome revealed 56 contigs codifying specialized metabolites biosynthesis-related enzymes. Nearly half of such genes (44.6%) could be mapped to orphan Biosynthetic Gene Clusters (BGCs) of related plant pathogens belonging to family Botryosphaeriaceae. Also, screening for rotenoids biosynthetic enzymes led to characterization of a putative chalcone isomerase-like (CHI-like) protein. This is the first report of rotenoids biosynthesized by a fungus, unveiling a unique ability of P. stromaticum. Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum produces cyclopeptides and plant-related rotenoids, which are responsible for its antiproliferative effect.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline C. M. Sobreira
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica
- Universidade Federal do Ceará
- Fortaleza
- Brazil
| | | | | | - Diego V. Wilke
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Medicamentos
- Universidade Federal do Ceará
- Fortaleza
- Brazil
| | - Charley C. Staats
- Centro de Biotecnologia
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
- Porto Alegre
- Brazil
| | | | | | - Otília D. L. Pessoa
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica
- Universidade Federal do Ceará
- Fortaleza
- Brazil
| | - Amaro E. Trindade-Silva
- Núcleo de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Medicamentos
- Universidade Federal do Ceará
- Fortaleza
- Brazil
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Chen L, Li Y, Yue Q, Loksztejn A, Yokoyama K, Felix EA, Liu X, Zhang N, An Z, Bills GF. Engineering of New Pneumocandin Side-Chain Analogues from Glarea lozoyensis by Mutasynthesis and Evaluation of Their Antifungal Activity. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:2724-2733. [PMID: 27494047 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Pneumocandins are lipohexapeptides of the echinocandin family that inhibit fungal 1,3-β-glucan synthase. Most of the pathway steps have been identified previously. However, the lipoinitiation reaction has not yet been experimentally verified. Herein, we investigate the lipoinitiation step of pneumocandin biosynthesis in Glarea lozoyensis and demonstrate that the gene product, GLligase, catalyzes this step. Disruption of GLHYD, a gene encoding a putative type II thioesterase and sitting upstream of the pneumocandin acyl side chain synthase gene, GLPKS4, revealed that GLHYD was necessary for optimal function of GLPKS4 and to attain normal levels of pneumocandin production. Double disruption of GLHYD and GLPKS4 did not affect residual function of the GLligase or GLNRPS4. Mutasynthesis experiments with a gene disruption mutant of GLPKS4 afforded us an opportunity to test the substrate specificity of GLligase in the absence of its native polyketide side chain to diversify pneumocandins with substituted side chains. Feeding alternative side chain precursors yielded acrophiarin and four new pneumocandin congeners with straight C14, C15, and C16 side chains. A comprehensive biological evaluation showed that one compound, pneumocandin I (5), has elevated antifungal activity and similar hemolytic activity compared to pneumocandin B0, the starting molecule for caspofungin. This study demonstrates that the lipoinitiation mechanism in pneumocandin biosynthesis involves interaction among a highly reducing PKS, a putative type II thioesterase, and an acyl AMP-ligase. A comparison of the SAR among pneumocandins with different-length acyl side chains demonstrated the potential for using GLligase for future engineering of new echinocandin analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Yan Li
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Qun Yue
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Anna Loksztejn
- Department
of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Nanaline
H. Duke Building, Box 3711, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
| | - Kenichi Yokoyama
- Department
of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Nanaline
H. Duke Building, Box 3711, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
| | - Edd A. Felix
- Phamaceutical
Science Facility, Institute of Applied Cancer Science, The M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Xingzhong Liu
- State
Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 3 Park 1, Beichen West Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Ningyan Zhang
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Zhiqiang An
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Gerald F. Bills
- Texas
Therapeutics Institute, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular
Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
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