Access to health care among status Aboriginal people with chronic kidney disease

Potentially preventable hospitalization as a complication of CKD: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory care-sensitive conditions have been described as those that (if appropriately managed in an outpatient setting) generally do not require subsequent hospitalization. Our goal was to identify clinical populations of people who are at the highest risk of ambulatory care-sensitive conditions related to chronic kidney disease (CKD).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

2,003,054 adults (including 238,747 adults with CKD) residing in Alberta, Canada, with at least one serum creatinine measurement between 2002 and 2009.

PREDICTORS

Estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria categories, CKD status, demographics, and clinical characteristics.

OUTCOMES

Hospitalization with heart failure, hyperkalemia, volume overload, or malignant hypertension.

MEASUREMENTS

We used the Alberta Kidney Disease Network database, which incorporates data from Alberta Health, the Northern and Southern Alberta Renal Programs, and clinical laboratories in Alberta.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 4.1 years, 43,863 participants were hospitalized for heart failure; 6,274 participants, for hyperkalemia; 2,035 participants, for volume overload; and 481 participants, for malignant hypertension. All 4 conditions were more common at lower estimated glomerular filtration rates and in the presence of albuminuria. In the subset of participants with CKD, heart failure, hyperkalemia, and volume overload were associated most strongly with older age, diabetes, chronic liver disease, and prior heart failure. Malignant hypertension was associated with prior hypertension, aboriginal status, and peripheral vascular disease. Remote-dwelling participants were more likely to experience heart failure and malignant hypertension than those living closer to providers.

LIMITATIONS

No data for medication use or potentially important process-based outcomes for study participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that future studies seeking to determine how to prevent ambulatory care-sensitive conditions in people with CKD should target remote dwellers and those with comorbid conditions such as concomitant heart failure and liver disease.

Age modification of diabetes-related hospitalization among First Nations adults in Alberta, Canada

BACKGROUND

We sought to determine the modifying effects of age and multimorbidity on the association between First Nations status and hospitalizations for diabetes-specific ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSC).

FINDINGS

We identified 183,654 adults with diabetes from Alberta Canada, and followed them for one year for the outcome of hospitalization or emergency department (ED) visit for a diabetes-specific ACSC. We used logistic regression to determine the association between First Nations status and the outcome, assessing for effect modification by age and multimorbidity with interaction terms. In a model adjusting for age, age(2), baseline A1c, duration of diabetes, and multimorbidity, First Nations people were at greater risk than non-First Nations to experience a diabetes-specific hospitalization or ED visit (unadjusted odds ratio [OR] 3.74; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.45-4.07). After adjustment for relevant covariates, this association varied by age (interaction: p = 0.018): adjusted OR 3.94 (95% CI: 3.11-4.99) and 5.74 (95% CI: 3.36-9.80) for First Nations compared to non-First Nations at ages 30 and 80 years, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with non-First Nations, older First Nations patients with diabetes are at greater risk for diabetes-specific hospitalizations. Older First Nations patients with diabetes should be given priority access to primary care services as they are at greatest risk for requiring hospitalization for stabilization of their condition.

Association between First Nations ethnicity and progression to kidney failure by presence and severity of albuminuria

BACKGROUND

Despite a low prevalence of chronic kidney disease (estimated glomerular filtration rate [GFR]<60 mL/min per 1.73 m2), First Nations people have high rates of kidney failure requiring chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation. We sought to examine whether the presence and severity of albuminuria contributes to the progression of chronic kidney disease to kidney failure among First Nations people.

METHODS

We identified all adult residents of Alberta (age≥18 yr) for whom an outpatient serum creatinine measurement was available from May 1, 2002, to Mar. 31, 2008. We determined albuminuria using urine dipsticks and categorized results as normal (i.e., no albuminuria), mild, heavy or unmeasured. Our primary outcome was progression to kidney failure (defined as the need for chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation, or a sustained doubling of serum creatinine levels). We calculated rates of progression to kidney failure by First Nations status, by estimated GFR and by albuminuria category. We determined the relative hazard of progression to kidney failure for First Nations compared with non-First Nations participants by level of albuminuria and estimated GFR.

RESULTS

Of the 1 816 824 participants we identified, 48 669 (2.7%) were First Nations. First Nations people were less likely to have normal albuminuria compared with non-First Nations people (38.7% v. 56.4%). Rates of progression to kidney failure were consistently 2- to 3-fold higher among First Nations people than among non-First Nations people, across all levels of albuminuria and estimated GFRs. Compared with non-First Nations people, First Nations people with an estimated GFR of 15.0-29.9 mL/min per 1.73 m2 had the highest risk of progression to kidney failure, with similar hazard ratios for those with normal and heavy albuminuria.

INTERPRETATION

Albuminuria confers a similar risk of progression to kidney failure for First Nations and non-First Nations people.

Quality of care for First Nations and non-First Nations People with diabetes

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Compared with non-First Nations, First Nations People with diabetes experience higher rates of kidney failure and death, which may be related to disparities in care. This study examined First Nations and non-First Nations People with diabetes for differences in quality indicators and their association with kidney failure and death.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

Adults with diabetes and an outpatient creatinine in Alberta from 2005 to 2008 were identified. Logistic regression was used to determine the likelihood of process of care indicators (measurement of urine albumin/creatinine ratio [ACR], LDL, and hemoglobin A1C [A1C]) and surrogate outcome indicators (achievement of LDL and A1C targets). Cox regression was used to determine the association between lack of achievement of indicator targets and each of kidney failure and death.

RESULTS

This study identified 140,709 non-First Nations and 6574 First Nations People with diabetes. There was a significant interaction between First Nations status and CKD for the outcomes (P<0.01); therefore, results are stratified by CKD. Among participants without CKD, First Nations People were less likely to receive process of care indicators and achieve target A1C compared with non-First Nations People. For those with CKD, First Nations People were as likely to receive these indicators (other than LDL) and achieve LDL and A1C targets. Lack of LDL and A1C assessment and achievement of targets were associated with increased risk of kidney failure and death similarly for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with non-First Nations, First Nations People with diabetes but without CKD experience disparities in assessment of quality indicators and achievement of A1C target.

Influence of ethnicity on childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a multiethnic multicenter Canadian cohort

OBJECTIVE

To determine the influence of ethnicity and sociodemographic factors on disease characteristics of the Canadian pediatric lupus population.

METHODS

Childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients at 4 pediatric centers in Halifax, Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver were consecutively recruited. Sociodemographics and disease data were collected. Patients were categorized by their primary self-selected ethnicity, and exploratory cluster analyses were examined for disease expression by ethnicity.

RESULTS

We enrolled 213 childhood-onset SLE patients, and ethnicity data were available for 206 patients: white (31%), Asian (30%), South Asian (15%), black (10%), Latino/Hispanic (4%), Aboriginal (4%), and Arab/Middle Eastern (3%). The frequency of clinical classification criteria (malar rash, arthritis, serositis, and renal disease) and autoantibodies significantly differed among ethnicities. Medications were prescribed equally across ethnicities: 76% were taking prednisone, 86% antimalarials, and 56% required additional immunosuppressants. Cluster analysis partitioned into 3 main groups: mild (n = 50), moderate (n = 82), and severe (n = 68) disease clusters. Only 20% of white patients were in the severe cluster compared to 51% of Asian and 41% of black patients (P = 0.03). However, disease activity indices and damage scores were similar across ethnicities.

CONCLUSION

Canadian childhood-onset SLE patients reflect our multiethnic population, with differences in disease manifestations, autoantibody profiles, and severity of disease expression by ethnicity.

Development and validation of an administrative case definition for inflammatory bowel diseases

BACKGROUND

A population-based database of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients is invaluable to explore and monitor the epidemiology and outcome of the disease. In this context, an accurate and validated population-based case definition for IBD becomes critical for researchers and health care providers.

METHODS

IBD and non-IBD individuals were identified through an endoscopy database in a western Canadian health region (Calgary Health Region, Calgary, Alberta). Subsequently, using a novel algorithm, a series of case definitions were developed to capture IBD cases in the administrative databases. In the second stage of the study, the criteria were validated in the Capital Health Region (Edmonton, Alberta).

RESULTS

A total of 150 IBD case definitions were developed using 1399 IBD patients and 15,439 controls in the development phase. In the validation phase, 318,382 endoscopic procedures were searched and 5201 IBD patients were identified. After consideration of sensitivity, specificity and temporal stability of each validated case definition, a diagnosis of IBD was assigned to individuals who experienced at least two hospitalizations or had four physician claims, or two medical contacts in the Ambulatory Care Classification System database with an IBD diagnostic code within a two-year period (specificity 99.8%; sensitivity 83.4%; positive predictive value 97.4%; negative predictive value 98.5%). An alternative case definition was developed for regions without access to the Ambulatory Care Classification System database. A novel scoring system was developed that detected Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis patients with a specificity of >99% and a sensitivity of 99.1% and 86.3%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Through a robust methodology, a reproducible set of criteria to capture IBD patients through administrative databases was developed. The methodology may be used to develop similar administrative definitions for chronic diseases.

Assessment of the Siksika chronic disease nephropathy-prevention clinic

OBJECTIVE

To determine if a community-based multifactorial intervention clinic led by a nurse practitioner would improve management of First Nations people at risk of developing chronic kidney disease.

DESIGN

Qualitative descriptive study.

SETTING

A nephropathy-prevention clinic in Siksika Nation, Alta.

PARTICIPANTS

First Nations people with diabetes, hypertension, or dyslipidemia who were referred to the clinic.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Changes in blood pressure (BP), hemoglobin A(1c), and low-density lipoprotein levels, as well as in use of antiplatelet therapy, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker medications, and statin therapy.

RESULTS

Members of the Siksika Nation were treated according to clinical practice guidelines. A total of 78 patients had at least 2 visits to the clinic and were included in this analysis (61.5% were women; mean age 56 years). Among those initially above target, a significant reduction was achieved in mean hemoglobin A(1c) (0.96%; P < .01), systolic BP (15.84 mm Hg; P < .05), diastolic BP (7.16 mm Hg; P < .001), and low-density lipoprotein (0.62 mmol/L; P < .01) levels. There was a significant increase in the proportion of patients with clinical indications who were treated with acetylsalicylic acid (42.4%; P < .01), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker medications (35.9%; P < .01), or statin therapy (35.9%; P < .01).

CONCLUSION

A community-based, nurse practitioner-led clinic can improve many clinically relevant factors in patients at risk of developing chronic kidney disease. Studies have shown that achieving treatment targets is associated with a reduced risk of early death and cardiovascular events; the effect in the First Nations population on these hard clinical end points remains to be determined.

Association of enrolment in primary care networks with diabetes care and outcomes among First Nations and low-income Albertans

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its complications is higher among First Nations people and people with low socio-economic status (SES). Previous studies in Alberta have shown that provision of care through Primary Care Networks (PCNs) is associated with better quality of care and better outcomes for people with diabetes, possibly because of greater utilization of chronic disease management programs. However, it is unknown whether First Nations individuals and those in lower SES groups experience these benefits.

METHODS

We used administrative and laboratory data for a population-based cohort analysis of Alberta residents under 65 years of age with diabetes. The primary outcome, assessed over a 1-year period, was admission to hospital or emergency department visit for a diabetes-specific ambulatory care sensitive condition (ACSC). Secondary outcomes were 2 quality-of-care indicators (likelihood of measurement of glycated hemoglobin [HbA1c] and or retinal screening) and 2 measures of health care utilization (visits to specialist and primary care physicians). We used negative binomial regression to determine the association between care within a PCN and hospital admission or emergency department visit for diabetes-specific ACSCs. We also assessed outcomes in 3 populations of interest (individuals receiving a health care subsidy [household income less than $39 250 and not eligible for Income Support], those receiving Income Support, and First Nations individuals) relative to the remainder of the population, controlling for whether care was provided in a PCN and adjusting for several baseline characteristics.

RESULTS

We identified a total of 106 653 patients with diabetes eligible for our study, of whom 43 327 (41%) received care in a PCN. Receiving care through a PCN was associated with lower rates of ACSC-related hospital admission or emergency department visits for all groups of interest, which suggests that PCNs had similar effects across each group. However, regardless of where care was provided, First Nations and low-SES patients had more than twice the adjusted rates of hospital admission or emergency department visits for diabetes-specific ACSCs than the general population and were less likely to receive guideline-recommended care, including measurement of HbA1c and retinal screening.

INTERPRETATION

Care in a PCN was associated with lower risks of hospital admission or emergency department visits for diabetes-specific ACSCs, even within vulnerable groups such as First Nations people and those of low SES. However, differences in outcomes and quality-of-care indicators persisted for First Nations individuals and those of low SES, relative to the general population, irrespective of where care was provided.

Use of administrative databases for health-care planning in CKD

Good-quality information is required to plan healthcare services for patients with chronic diseases. Such information includes measures of disease burden, current care patterns and gaps in care based on quality-of-care indicators and clinical outcomes. Administrative data have long been used as a source of information for policy decisions related to the management of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes and hypertension. More recently, chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been acknowledged as a significant public health issue. Administrative data, particularly when supplemented by the use of routine laboratory data, have the potential to inform the development of optimal CKD care strategies, generate hypotheses about how to slow disease progression and identify risk factors for adverse outcomes. Available data may allow case identification and assessment of rates and patterns of disease progression, evaluation of risk and complications, including current gaps in care, and an estimation of associated costs. In this article, we use the example of the Alberta Kidney Disease Network to describe how researchers and policy makers can collaborate, using administrative data sources to guide health policy for the care of CKD patients.

Caregiving for elders in first nations communities: social system perspective on barriers and challenges

This research examined the perspectives and experiences of First Nations community members regarding health and social support for elderly people living in 13 First Nations communities in northwestern Ontario. Surveys (n = 216) and focus groups (n = 70) were conducted in 2005 and 2006 with elderly Aboriginal people and their formal and informal caregivers. Results indicated a strong preference (69%) for helping people to age and die at home; however, barriers and challenges existed at the family, community, health system, and social policy levels. Barriers included a lack of family caregivers and shortage of health care providers and programs; changing community values; and limited access to provincial health services and culturally relevant and safe care, all of which hindered social policy and community empowerment. Enabling elderly people to age within First Nations communities will require multi-level and multi-sectoral system changes.

Prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus and systemic sclerosis in the First Nations population of Alberta, Canada

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the population-based prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and systemic sclerosis (SSc) in Alberta, Canada, stratified by First Nations status.

METHODS

Physician billing claims and hospitalization data for the province of Alberta (1994-2007) were used to ascertain cases of SLE and SSc using 3 case definitions. A latent class Bayesian hierarchical regression model was employed to account for the imperfect sensitivity and specificity of billing and hospitalization data in case ascertainment. We accounted for demographic factors, estimating prevalence rates for the First Nations and non-First Nations populations by sex, age group, and location of residence (urban/rural).

RESULTS

Our model estimated the prevalence of SLE in Alberta to be 27.3 cases per 10,000 females (95% credible interval [95% CrI] 25.9-28.8) and 3.2 cases per 10,000 males (95% CrI 2.6-3.8). The overall prevalence of SSc in Alberta was 5.8 cases per 10,000 females (95% CrI 5.1-6.5) and 1.0 case per 10,000 males (95% CrI 0.7-1.4). First Nations females over 45 years of age had twice the prevalence of either SLE or SSc relative to non-First Nations females. There was also a trend toward higher overall SLE prevalence in urban dwellers, and higher overall SSc prevalence in rural residents.

CONCLUSION

First Nations females older than 45 years of age have an increased prevalence of either SLE or SSc. This may reflect a true predominance of autoimmune rheumatic diseases in this demographic, or may indicate systematic differences in health care delivery.

Management of aboriginal and nonaboriginal people with chronic kidney disease in Quebec: quality-of-care indicators

OBJECTIVE

To compare quality-of-care indicators for management of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and type 2 diabetes among the James Bay Cree of Northern Quebec with those among residents of Montreal, Que.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey using medical records from patients seen between 2002 and 2008.

SETTING

Predialysis clinics of the McGill University Health Centre in Montreal.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirty Cree and 51 nonaboriginal patients older than 18 years of age with type 2 diabetes mellitus and estimated glomerular filtration rates of less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Rates of anemia, iron deficiency, obesity, and renoprotective medication use among aboriginal and nonaboriginal patients.

RESULTS

Overall, the Cree patients were younger (59 vs 68 years of age, P < .0035) and weighed more (101 vs 77 kg,P < .001). The 2 groups were prescribed medication to control blood pressure, lipids, and phosphate levels at similar rates, but the Cree patients were more likely to receive renoprotective agents (87% vs 65%, P = .04). Despite similar rates of erythropoietin supplementation, the Cree patients were at greater risk of anemia, with an adjusted risk ratio of 2.80 (95% CI 1.01 to 7.87).

CONCLUSION

Cree patients with CKD were younger, weighed more, and were more likely to receive renoprotective agents. With the exception of the management of anemia, quality of CKD care was similar between the 2 groups.Anemia education for family physicians and continuous monitoring of quality indicators must be implemented in northern Quebec.

Increased influenza-related healthcare utilization by residents of an urban aboriginal community

Most studies describing high rates of acute respiratory illness in aboriginals have focused on rural or remote communities. Hypothesized causes include socioeconomic deprivation, limited access to healthcare, and a high prevalence of chronic disease. To assess influenza rates in an aboriginal community while accounting for healthcare access, deprivation and chronic disease prevalence, we compared rates of influenza-related outpatient and emergency-department visits in an urban Mohawk reserve (Kahnawá:ke) to rates in neighbouring regions with comparable living conditions and then restricted the analysis to a sub-population with a low chronic disease prevalence, i.e. those aged <20 years. Using medical billing claims from 1996 to 2006 we estimated age-sex standardized rate ratios. The rate in Kahnawá:ke was 58% greater than neighbouring regions and 98% greater in the analysis of those aged <20 years. Despite relatively favourable socioeconomic conditions and healthcare access, rates of influenza-related visits in Kahnawá:ke were elevated, particularly in the younger age groups.

Elevated overdose mortality rates among First Nations individuals in a Canadian setting: a population-based analysis

AIMS

To determine the total burden of illicit drug overdose mortality over the study period in the province of British Columbia and investigate possible population-level determinants by estimating rates among subgroups including First Nations individuals.

DESIGN

Review of coroner case files.

SETTING

The province of British Columbia, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals dying from an illicit drug overdose between 2001 and 2005.

MEASUREMENTS

Age-adjusted mortality rates, standardized mortality ratios (SMR) and years of potential life lost (YPLL), stratified by major population groups.

FINDINGS

Over the study period, 909 individuals died from illicit drug overdoses, including 104 (11.4%) First Nations individuals. Compared to the general population, First Nations males and females suffered from substantially elevated SMR and YPLL. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, First Nations deaths were significantly more likely to be among women, related to injection drug use and to have occurred in the Downtown Eastside area of Vancouver, the local epicentre of human immunodeficiency virus infection and open drug use (all P< 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This report found highly elevated overdose death rates and levels of premature mortality among First Nations Canadians in British Columbia compared to the general population. While previously unidentified, these findings are consistent with the poorer population health profile of First Nations Canadians. Although further research is needed to identify the causes of the elevated death rates, our findings support increased availability of evidence-based overdose prevention measures.

An economic evaluation of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in CKD

BACKGROUND

The objective was to determine the cost-effectiveness of treating anemic patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) to a low (9-10.9 g/dL), intermediate (11-12 g/dL), or high (> 12 g/dL) hemoglobin level target compared with a strategy of managing anemia without ESAs.

STUDY DESIGN

Cost-utility analysis.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

Publicly funded health care system. Anemic patients with CKD, overall and stratified into dialysis-/non-dialysis-dependent subgroups.

MODEL, PERSPECTIVE, & TIMEFRAME

Decision analysis, health care payer, patient's lifetime.

MAIN OUTCOME

Cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained.

RESULTS

For dialysis patients, compared with anemia management without ESAs, using ESAs to target a low hemoglobin level is associated with a cost per QALY of $96,270. Given a lack of direct trials comparing low and intermediate targets, significant uncertainty exists between these strategies. Treatment to a high hemoglobin target was always associated with worse clinical outcomes and higher costs compared with a low hemoglobin target. Results were similar in non-dialysis-dependent patients with CKD, with a cost per QALY for a low target compared with no ESA of $147,980.

LIMITATIONS

Given limitations in the available randomized controlled trials, we were able to model only 4 treatment strategies, balancing the need to consider relevant targets with the requirement for accurate estimates of clinical effect. We assumed that the efficacy of the different strategies would continue over a patient's lifetime.

CONCLUSIONS

Using ESAs to target a hemoglobin level > 12 g/dL is associated with worse clinical outcomes and significant additional cost compared with using ESAs to target lower hemoglobin levels (9-12 g/dL). Given a lack of studies comparing low (9-10.9 g/dL) and intermediate (11-12 g/dL) hemoglobin targets for clinical outcomes, including quality of life, the most cost-effective hemoglobin level target within the range of 9-12 g/dL is uncertain, although aiming for higher targets within this range will lead to higher costs.

Overview of the Alberta Kidney Disease Network

Background

The Alberta Kidney Disease Network is a collaborative nephrology research organization based on a central repository of laboratory and administrative data from the Canadian province of Alberta.

Description

The laboratory data within the Alberta Kidney Disease Network can be used to define patient populations, such as individuals with chronic kidney disease (using serum creatinine measurements to estimate kidney function) or anemia (using hemoglobin measurements). The administrative data within the Alberta Kidney Disease Network can also be used to define cohorts with common medical conditions such as hypertension and diabetes. Linkage of data sources permits assessment of socio-demographic information, clinical variables including comorbidity, as well as ascertainment of relevant outcomes such as health service encounters and events, the occurrence of new specified clinical outcomes and mortality.

Conclusion

The unique ability to combine laboratory and administrative data for a large geographically defined population provides a rich data source not only for research purposes but for policy development and to guide the delivery of health care. This research model based on computerized laboratory data could serve as a prototype for the study of other chronic conditions.

Approaches to diversity in family medicine: "I have always tried to be colour blind"

OBJECTIVE

To explore family physicians' perceptions of and experiences with patient diversity, including differences in sex, race, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, and abilities or disabilities.

DESIGN

Semistructured, in-depth, qualitative interviews. SETTING Halifax metropolitan region, Nova Scotia.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-two family physicians who ranged in age (25 to 65 years) and in years of practice (< 5 to > 20). Participants included both sexes, members of racialized minority groups, and those who self-identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.

METHODS

Physicians were recruited through information letters distributed by mail and through professional networks. Interviews and field notes were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and coded using data analysis software. Weekly team discussions enhanced interpretation and analysis.

MAIN FINDINGS

Family physicians employed 5 main approaches to diversity: maintaining that differences do not matter, accommodating sociocultural differences, seeking to better understand differences, seeking to avoid discrimination, and challenging inequities. Quotes from interviews illustrate these themes.

CONCLUSION

Most approaches assume that both medicine (as a profession) and physicians are and should be socially and culturally neutral; some acknowledge that the sociocultural background of patients can raise tensions. Most participants in our study seek to treat patients as individuals in order to not stereotype, which hinders recognition of the ways in which sociocultural factors-both patients' and physicians'-influence health and health care. Critical reflexivity demands that physicians understand social relations of power and where they fit within those relations.