A destructive interaction mechanism accounts for dominant-negative effects of misfolded mutants of voltage-gated calcium channels

Slow degradation and aggregation in vitro of mutant GABAA receptor gamma2(Q351X) subunits associated with epilepsy

The GABA(A) receptor γ2 subunit nonsense mutation Q351X has been associated with the genetic epilepsy syndrome generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus, which includes a spectrum of seizures types from febrile seizures to Dravet syndrome. Although most genetic epilepsy syndromes are mild and remit with age, Dravet syndrome has a more severe clinical course with refractory seizures associated with developmental delay and cognitive impairment. The basis for the broad spectrum of seizure phenotypes is uncertain. We demonstrated previously that the GABA(A) receptor γ2 subunit gene Q351X mutation suppressed biogenesis of wild-type partnering α1 and β2 subunits in addition to its loss of function. Here we show that γ2S(Q351X) subunits have an additional impairment of biogenesis. Mutant γ2(Q351X) subunits were degraded more slowly than wild-type γ2 subunits and formed SDS-resistant, high-molecular-mass complexes or aggregates in multiple cell types, including neurons. The half-life of γ2S(Q351X) subunits was ∼4 h, whereas that of γ2S subunits was ∼2 h. Mutant subunits formed complexes rapidly after synthesis onset. Using multiple truncated subunits, we demonstrated that aggregate formation was a general phenomenon for truncated γ2S subunits and that their Cys-loop cysteines were involved in aggregate formation. Protein aggregation is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, but the effects of the mutant γ2S(Q351X) subunit aggregates on neuronal function and survival are unclear. Additional validation of the mutant subunit aggregation in vivo and determination of the involved signaling pathways will help reveal the pathological effects of these mutant subunit aggregates in the pathogenesis of genetic epilepsy syndromes.

CaV2.1 channelopathies

Mutations in the CACNA1A gene that encodes the pore-forming alpha1 subunit of human voltage-gated CaV2.1 (P/Q-type) Ca2+ channels cause several autosomal-dominant neurologic disorders, including familial hemiplegic migraine type 1 (FHM1), episodic ataxia type 2, and spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6). For each channelopathy, the review describes the disease phenotype as well as the functional consequences of the disease-causing mutations on recombinant human CaV2.1 channels and, in the case of FHM1 and SCA6, on neuronal CaV2.1 channels expressed at the endogenous physiological level in knockin mouse models. The effects of FHM1 mutations on cortical spreading depression, the phenomenon underlying migraine aura, and on cortical excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in FHM1 knockin mice are also described, and their implications for the disease mechanism discussed. Moreover, the review describes different ataxic spontaneous cacna1a mouse mutants and the important insights into the cerebellar mechanisms underlying motor dysfunction caused by mutant CaV2.1 channels that were obtained from their functional characterization.

Identification of novel and recurrent CACNA1A gene mutations in fifteen patients with episodic ataxia type 2

Episodic ataxia type 2 is a rare autosomal dominant disease characterized by recurrent attacks of vertigo and cerebellar ataxia. The disease was caused by mutations in the CACNA1A gene, on chromosome 19p. We perform a mutational screening in a group of 43 unrelated patients. Forty-two patients presented episodes of disequilibrium and ataxia, and one child was studied because of the occurrence of episodic torticollis. The genetic analysis showed 15 mutated patients (35%). In 13 cases we found novel CACNA1A gene mutations, including missense, protein truncating, and aberrant splicing mutations. Two truncating mutations lead to the uppermost premature stop so far reported, challenging recent hypotheses on dominant negative effect. In patients without CACNA1A mutations, molecular testing for CACNB4 gene mutations excluded this genetic subtype. Clinical features of mutated subjects mostly confirmed previous sign and symptoms associated with EA2, including paroxysmal torticollis and mental retardation. CACNA1A mutated patients have an earlier age at onset, interictal nystagmus, and abnormalities of ocular movements. A review of all CACNA1A mutations so far reported showed that they are mainly located downstream exon 18. Our data substantially increase the number of the described CACNA1A mutations, and propose clinical and molecular criteria for a more focused genetic screening.

N terminus is key to the dominant negative suppression of Ca(V)2 calcium channels: implications for episodic ataxia type 2

Expression of the calcium channels Ca_V2.1 and Ca_V2.2 is markedly suppressed by co-expression with truncated constructs containing Domain I. This is the basis for the phenomenon of dominant negative suppression observed for many of the episodic ataxia type 2 mutations in Ca_V2.1 that predict truncated channels. The process of dominant negative suppression has been shown previously to stem from interaction between the full-length and truncated channels and to result in downstream consequences of the unfolded protein response and endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation. We have now identified the specific domain that triggers this effect. For both Ca_V2.1 and Ca_V2.2, the minimum construct producing suppression was the cytoplasmic N terminus. Suppression was enhanced by tethering the N terminus to the membrane with a CAAX motif. The 11-amino acid motif (including Arg⁵² and Arg⁵⁴) within the N terminus, which we have previously shown to be required for G protein modulation, is also essential for dominant negative suppression. Suppression is prevented by addition of an N-terminal tag (XFP) to the full-length and truncated constructs. We further show that suppression of Ca_V2.2 currents by the N terminus-CAAX construct is accompanied by a reduction in Ca_V2.2 protein level, and this is also prevented by mutation of Arg⁵² and Arg⁵⁴ to Ala in the truncated construct. Taken together, our evidence indicates that both the extreme N terminus and the Arg⁵², Arg⁵⁴ motif are involved in the processes underlying dominant negative suppression.

Calcium channel diversity: multiple roles of calcium channel subunits

Until recently we held the simple view that voltage-gated calcium channels consisted of an alpha1 subunit, usually associated with auxiliary beta subunits and alpha(2)delta subunits and that skeletal muscle calcium channels were also associated with a gamma subunit. However, as discussed here, there is now evidence that the auxiliary subunits may also perform other roles unrelated to voltage-gated calcium entry. In the past students were taught the simplistic view that second messenger signaling to voltage-gated calcium channels involved mainly phosphorylation of L-type calcium channels, Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation via calmodulin, and direct G-protein-mediated inhibition of the neuronal N and P/Q channels. However, it is now clear that there are many other means of modulating calcium channel activity, including receptor-mediated internalization, proteolytic cleavage, phosphorylation of beta subunits, and interaction of calcium channels with other proteins, including enzymes masquerading as scaffold proteins.

The GABRG2 mutation, Q351X, associated with generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus, has both loss of function and dominant-negative suppression

The GABA(A) receptor gamma2 subunit mutation, Q351X, associated with generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+), created a loss of function with homozygous expression. However, heterozygous gamma2(+/-) gene deletion mice are seizure free, suggesting that the loss of one GABRG2 allele alone in heterozygous patients may not be sufficient to produce epilepsy. Here we show that the mutant gamma2 subunit was immature and retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). With heterozygous coexpression of gamma2S/gamma2S(Q351X) subunits and alpha1 and beta2 subunits, the trafficking deficient mutant gamma2 subunit reduced trafficking of wild-type partnering subunits, which was not seen in the hemizygous gene deletion control. Consequently, the function of the heterozygous receptor channel was reduced to less than the hemizygous control and to less than half of the wild-type receptors with a full gene dose. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that in the presence of the mutant gamma2S(Q351X) subunit, wild-type alpha1 subunits degraded more substantially within 1 h of translation. We showed that the basis for this dominant-negative effect on wild-type receptors was due to an interaction between mutant and wild-type subunits. The mutant subunit oligomerized with wild-type subunits and trapped them in the ER, subjecting them to glycosylation arrest and ER-associated degradation (ERAD) through the ubiquitin proteosome system. Thus, we hypothesize that a likely explanation for the GEFS+ phenotype is a dominant-negative suppression of wild-type receptors by the mutant gamma2S subunit in combination with loss of mutant gamma2S subunit protein function.

Functional properties and modulation of extracellular epitope-tagged Ca(V)2.1 voltage-gated calcium channels

Depolarisation-induced Ca2+ influx into electrically excitable cells is determined by the density of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels at the cell surface. Surface expression is modulated by physiological stimuli as well as by drugs and can be altered under pathological conditions. Extracellular epitope-tagging of channel subunits allows to quantify their surface expression and to distinguish surface channels from those in intracellular compartments. Here we report the first systematic characterisation of extracellularly epitope-tagged Ca(V)2.1 channels. We identified a permissive region in the pore-loop of repeat IV within the Ca(V)2.1 alpha(1) subunit, which allowed integration of several different tags (hemagluttinine [HA], double HA; 6-histidine tag [His], 9-His, bungarotoxin-binding site) without compromising alpha(1) subunit protein expression (in transfected tsA-201 cells) and function (after expression in X. laevis oocytes). Immunofluorescence studies revealed that the double-HA tagged construct (1722-HAGHA) was targeted to presynaptic sites in transfected cultured hippocampal neurons as expected for Ca(V)2.1 channels. We also demonstrate that introduction of tags into this permissive position creates artificial sites for channel modulation. This was demonstrated by partial inhibition of 1722-HA channel currents with anti-HA antibodies and the concentration-dependent stimulation or partial inhibition by Ni-nitrilo triacetic acid (NTA) and novel bulkier derivatives (Ni-trisNTA, Ni-tetrakisNTA, Ni-nitro-o-phenyl-bisNTA, Ni-nitro-p-phenyl-bisNTA). Therefore our data also provide evidence for the concept that artificial modulatory sites for small ligands can be introduced into voltage-gated Ca2+ channel for their selective modulation.

Premature stop codons in a facilitating EF-hand splice variant of CaV2.1 cause episodic ataxia type 2

Premature stop codons in CACNA1A, which encodes the alpha(1A) subunit of neuronal P/Q-type (Ca(V)2.1) Ca(2+) channels, cause episodic ataxia type 2 (EA2). CACNA1A undergoes extensive alternative splicing, which contributes to the pharmacological and kinetic heterogeneity of Ca(V)2.1-mediated Ca(2+) currents. We identified three novel heterozygous stop codon mutations associated with EA2 in an alternately spliced exon (37A), which encodes part of an EF-hand motif required for Ca(2+)-dependent facilitation. One family had a C to G transversion (Y1854X). A dinucleotide deletion results in the same premature stop codon in a second family, and a further single nucleotide change leads to a different truncation (R1858X) in a de novo case of EA2. Expression studies of the Y1854X mutation revealed loss of Ca(V)2.1-mediated current. Because these mutations do not affect the alternate exon 37B, these findings reveal unexpected dependence of cerebellar function on intact exon 37A-containing Ca(V)2.1 channels.