Presynaptic mitochondria in functionally different motor neurons exhibit similar affinities for Ca2+ but exert little influence as Ca2+ buffers at nerve firing rates in situ

Forward-filling of dextran-conjugated indicators for calcium imaging at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction

Calcium imaging is a technique in which Ca(2+)-binding molecules are loaded into live cells and as they bind Ca(2+) they "indicate" the concentration of free calcium through a change in either the intensity or the wavelength of light emitted (fluorescence or bioluminescence). There are several possible methods for loading synthetic Ca(2+) indicators into subcellular compartments, including topical application of membrane-permeant Ca(2+) indicators, forward-filling of dextran conjugates, and direct injection. Calcium imaging is a highly informative technique in neurobiology because Ca(2+) is involved in many neuronal signaling pathways and serves as the trigger for neurotransmitter release. This article describes the forward-filling of dextran-conjugated indicators at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ). This technique is particularly well suited for imaging changes in cytosolic Ca(2+) as dextran conjugation prevents compartmentalization of the Ca(2+) indicator. The major drawback is that the nerves must be severed at the start of the loading process, several hours before nerve terminals are ready to examine.

Calcium imaging at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction

Calcium imaging uses optical imaging techniques to measure the concentration of free calcium [Ca(2+)] in live cells. It is a highly informative technique in neurobiology because Ca(2+) is involved in many neuronal signaling pathways and serves as the trigger for neurotransmitter release. The technique relies on loading Ca(2+) indicators into cells, measuring the quantity and/or wavelength of the photons emitted by the Ca(2+) indicator, and interpreting these data in terms of [Ca(2+)]. There are several possible methods for loading synthetic Ca(2+) indicators into subcellular compartments, for example, topical application of membrane-permeant Ca(2+) indicators, forward-filling of dextran conjugates, and direct injection. These techniques are applicable to calcium imaging at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ), and are also readily adaptable to Drosophila embryo and adult preparations.

Cytosolic calcium coordinates mitochondrial energy metabolism with presynaptic activity

Most neurons fire in bursts, imposing episodic energy demands, but how these demands are coordinated with oxidative phosphorylation is still unknown. Here, using fluorescence imaging techniques on presynaptic termini of Drosophila motor neurons (MNs), we show that mitochondrial matrix pH (pHm), inner membrane potential (Δψm), and NAD(P)H levels ([NAD(P)H]m) increase within seconds of nerve stimulation. The elevations of pHm, Δψm, and [NAD(P)H]m indicate an increased capacity for ATP production. Elevations in pHm were blocked by manipulations that blocked mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, including replacement of extracellular Ca2+ with Sr2+ and application of either tetraphenylphosphonium chloride or KB-R7943, indicating that it is Ca2+ that stimulates presynaptic mitochondrial energy metabolism. To place this phenomenon within the context of endogenous neuronal activity, the firing rates of a number of individually identified MNs were determined during fictive locomotion. Surprisingly, although endogenous firing rates are significantly different, there was little difference in presynaptic cytosolic Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]c) between MNs when each fires at its endogenous rate. The average [Ca2+]c level (329±11 nM) was slightly above the average Ca2+ affinity of the mitochondria (281±13 nM). In summary, we show that when MNs fire at endogenous rates, [Ca2+]c is driven into a range where mitochondria rapidly acquire Ca2+. As we also show that Ca2+ stimulates presynaptic mitochondrial energy metabolism, we conclude that [Ca2+]c levels play an integral role in coordinating mitochondrial energy metabolism with presynaptic activity in Drosophila MNs.

Genetic analysis in Drosophila reveals a role for the mitochondrial protein p32 in synaptic transmission

Mitochondria located within neuronal presynaptic terminals have been shown to play important roles in the release of chemical neurotransmitters. In the present study, a genetic screen for synaptic transmission mutants of Drosophila has identified the first mutation in a Drosophila homolog of the mitochondrial protein P32. Although P32 is highly conserved and has been studied extensively, its physiological role in mitochondria remains unknown and it has not previously been implicated in neural function. The Drosophila P32 mutant, referred to as dp32^EC1, exhibited a temperature-sensitive (TS) paralytic behavioral phenotype. Moreover, electrophysiological analysis at adult neuromuscular synapses revealed a TS reduction in the amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSC) and indicated that dP32 functions in neurotransmitter release. These studies are the first to address P32 function in Drosophila and expand our knowledge of mitochondrial proteins contributing to synaptic transmission.

Differential control of presynaptic CaMKII activation and translocation to active zones

The release of neurotransmitters, neurotrophins, and neuropeptides is modulated by Ca(2+) mobilization from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and activation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). Furthermore, when neuronal cultures are subjected to prolonged depolarization, presynaptic CaMKII redistributes from the cytoplasm to accumulate near active zones (AZs), a process that is reminiscent of CaMKII translocation to the postsynaptic side of the synapse. However, it is not known how presynaptic CaMKII activation and translocation depend on neuronal activity and ER Ca(2+) release. Here these issues are addressed in Drosophila motoneuron terminals by imaging a fluorescent reporter of CaMKII activity and subcellular distribution. We report that neuronal excitation acts with ER Ca(2+) stores to induce CaMKII activation and translocation to a subset of AZs. Surprisingly, activation is slow, reflecting T286 autophosphorylation and the function of presynaptic ER ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs). Furthermore, translocation is not simply proportional to CaMKII activity, as T286 autophosphorylation promotes activation, but does not affect translocation. In contrast, RNA interference-induced knockdown of the AZ scaffold protein Bruchpilot disrupts CaMKII translocation without affecting activation. Finally, RyRs comparably stimulate both activation and translocation, but IP3Rs preferentially promote translocation. Thus, Ca(2+) provided by different presynaptic ER Ca(2+) release channels is not equivalent. These results suggest that presynaptic CaMKII activation depends on autophosphorylation and global Ca(2+) in the terminal, while translocation to AZs requires Ca(2+) microdomains generated by IP3Rs.

Ca²+ buffering at a drosophila larval synaptic terminal

A quantitative analysis of Ca²+ dynamics requires knowledge of the Ca²+-binding ratio (κ(S) ); this has not been measured at Drosophila synaptic terminals or any invertebrate synaptic terminal. We measured κ(S) at a Ib motor terminal in Drosophila larvae comparing single-AP Ca²+ transients in synaptic terminals that contained varying concentrations of the Ca²+ indicator, Oregon Green 488 BAPTA-1 (OGB-1). Using a linear single-compartment model, κ(S) was calculated based upon the effect of [OGB-1] on the time constant (τ(decay) ) for the decay of intracellular free Ca²+ concentration ([Ca²+](i)). This gave a κ(S) of 77 indicating that nearly 99% of entering Ca²+ is immediately bound by endogenous fast Ca²+ buffers. Extrapolation to zero [OGB-1] gave a τ(decay) of 46 ms and a Ca²+-removal rate constant of 1641 s⁻¹ for single APs. We calculated that a single AP produced an increase in [Ca²+](i) of 196 nM and an increase in the total intracellular [Ca²+](free + bound) of 15.3 μM for measurements made in 1.0 mM external Ca²+. The increase in [Ca²+](i) for AP trains was 185 nM/ 10 Hz; this gave a Ca²+ extrusion rate constant of 827 s⁻¹, which likely reflects the activity of the plasma membrane Ca²+ ATPase. Experiments were performed to examine the effect of altering external Ca²+ or Mg²+ on Ca²+ influx at these terminals.