51
|
Jiang S, Xu W, Chen Z, Cui C, Fan X, Cai J, Gong Y, Geng B. Hydrogen sulphide reduces hyperhomocysteinaemia-induced endothelial ER stress by sulfhydrating protein disulphide isomerase to attenuate atherosclerosis. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 25:3437-3448. [PMID: 33675119 PMCID: PMC8034471 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.16423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperhomocysteinaemia (HHcy)-impaired endothelial dysfunction including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays a crucial role in atherogenesis. Hydrogen sulphide (H2 S), a metabolic production of Hcy and gasotransmitter, exhibits preventing cardiovascular damages induced by HHcy by reducing ER stress, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here, we made an atherosclerosis with HHcy mice model by ApoE knockout mice and feeding Pagien diet and drinking L-methionine water. H2 S donors NaHS and GYY4137 treatment lowered plaque area and ER stress in this model. Protein disulphide isomerase (PDI), a modulation protein folding key enzyme, was up-regulated in plaque and reduced by H2 S treatment. In cultured human aortic endothelial cells, Hcy dose and time dependently elevated PDI expression, but inhibited its activity, and which were rescued by H2 S. H2 S and its endogenous generation key enzyme-cystathionine γ lyase induced a new post-translational modification-sulfhydration of PDI. Sulfhydrated PDI enhanced its activity, and two cysteine-terminal CXXC domain of PDI was identified by site mutation. HHcy lowered PDI sulfhydration association ER stress, and H2 S rescued it but this effect was blocked by cysteine site mutation. Conclusively, we demonstrated that H2 S sulfhydrated PDI and enhanced its activity, reducing HHcy-induced endothelial ER stress to attenuate atherosclerosis development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shan Jiang
- Institute of Hypoxia Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenjing Xu
- Department of Pathology, Xi'an Medical University, Shanxi, China
| | - Zhenzhen Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Hypertension Center, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Changting Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Hypertension Center, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofang Fan
- Institute of Hypoxia Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jun Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Hypertension Center, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yongsheng Gong
- Institute of Hypoxia Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bin Geng
- Institute of Hypoxia Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Hypertension Center, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Endoplasmic reticulum stress and unfolded protein response in cardiovascular diseases. Nat Rev Cardiol 2021; 18:499-521. [PMID: 33619348 DOI: 10.1038/s41569-021-00511-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 104.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), such as ischaemic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, hypertension, stroke and heart failure, are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Although specific CVDs and the associated cardiometabolic abnormalities have distinct pathophysiological and clinical manifestations, they often share common traits, including disruption of proteostasis resulting in accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER proteostasis is governed by the unfolded protein response (UPR), a signalling pathway that adjusts the protein-folding capacity of the cell to sustain the cell's secretory function. When the adaptive UPR fails to preserve ER homeostasis, a maladaptive or terminal UPR is engaged, leading to the disruption of ER integrity and to apoptosis. ER stress functions as a double-edged sword, with long-term ER stress resulting in cellular defects causing disturbed cardiovascular function. In this Review, we discuss the distinct roles of the UPR and ER stress response as both causes and consequences of CVD. We also summarize the latest advances in our understanding of the importance of the UPR and ER stress in the pathogenesis of CVD and discuss potential therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring ER proteostasis in CVDs.
Collapse
|
53
|
Wei J, Fang D. Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Signaling and the Pathogenesis of Hepatocarcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041799. [PMID: 33670323 PMCID: PMC7918477 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), also known as hepatoma, is a primary malignancy of the liver and the third leading cause of cancer mortality globally. Although much attention has focused on HCC, its pathogenesis remains largely obscure. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a cellular organelle important for regulating protein synthesis, folding, modification and trafficking, and lipid metabolism. ER stress occurs when ER homeostasis is disturbed by numerous environmental, physiological, and pathological challenges. In response to ER stress due to misfolded/unfolded protein accumulation, unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated to maintain ER function for cell survival or, in cases of excessively severe ER stress, initiation of apoptosis. The liver is especially susceptible to ER stress given its protein synthesis and detoxification functions. Experimental data suggest that ER stress and unfolded protein response are involved in HCC development, aggressiveness and response to treatment. Herein, we highlight recent findings and provide an overview of the evidence linking ER stress to the pathogenesis of HCC.
Collapse
|
54
|
Evolution and function of the epithelial cell-specific ER stress sensor IRE1β. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14:1235-1246. [PMID: 34075183 PMCID: PMC8528705 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-021-00412-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Barrier epithelial cells lining the mucosal surfaces of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts interface directly with the environment. As such, these tissues are continuously challenged to maintain a healthy equilibrium between immunity and tolerance against environmental toxins, food components, and microbes. An extracellular mucus barrier, produced and secreted by the underlying epithelium plays a central role in this host defense response. Several dedicated molecules with a unique tissue-specific expression in mucosal epithelia govern mucosal homeostasis. Here, we review the biology of Inositol-requiring enzyme 1β (IRE1β), an ER-resident endonuclease and paralogue of the most evolutionarily conserved ER stress sensor IRE1α. IRE1β arose through gene duplication in early vertebrates and adopted functions unique from IRE1α which appear to underlie the basic development and physiology of mucosal tissues.
Collapse
|
55
|
Liu Y, Tan Z, Yang Y. Negative feedback and modern anti-cancer strategies targeting the ER stress response. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:4247-4265. [PMID: 33206409 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a cell state in which misfolded or unfolded proteins are aberrantly accumulated in the ER. ER stress induces an evolutionarily conserved adaptive response, named the ER stress response, that deploys a self-regulated machinery to maintain cellular proteostasis. However, compared to its well-established canonical activation mechanism, the negative feedback mechanisms regulating the ER stress response remain unclear and no accepted methods or markers have been established. Several studies have documented that both endogenous and exogenous insults can induce ER stress in cancer. Based on this evidence, small molecule inhibitors targeting ER stress response have been designed to kill cancer cells, with some of them showing excellent curative effects. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of negative feedback of the ER stress response and compare the markers used to date. We also summarize therapeutic inhibitors targeting ER stress response and highlight the promises and challenges ahead.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaofu Liu
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhenzhi Tan
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
| | - Yili Yang
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Wright MT, Plate L. Revealing functional insights into ER proteostasis through proteomics and interactomics. Exp Cell Res 2020; 399:112417. [PMID: 33301765 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.112417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), responsible for processing approximately one-third of the human proteome including most secreted and membrane proteins, plays a pivotal role in protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Dysregulation of ER proteostasis has been implicated in a number of disease states. As such, continued efforts are directed at elucidating mechanisms of ER protein quality control which are mediated by transient and dynamic protein-protein interactions with molecular chaperones, co-chaperones, protein folding and trafficking factors that take place in and around the ER. Technological advances in mass spectrometry have played a pivotal role in characterizing and understanding these protein-protein interactions that dictate protein quality control mechanisms. Here, we highlight the recent progress from mass spectrometry-based investigation of ER protein quality control in revealing the topological arrangement of the proteostasis network, stress response mechanisms that adjust the ER proteostasis capacity, and disease specific changes in proteostasis network engagement. We close by providing a brief outlook on underexplored areas of ER proteostasis where mass spectrometry is a tool uniquely primed to further expand our understanding of the regulation and coordination of protein quality control processes in diverse diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madison T Wright
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Lars Plate
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Wang L, Yu J, Wang CC. Protein disulfide isomerase is regulated in multiple ways: Consequences for conformation, activities, and pathophysiological functions. Bioessays 2020; 43:e2000147. [PMID: 33155310 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is one of the most abundant and critical protein folding catalysts in the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells. PDI consists of four thioredoxin domains and interacts with a wide range of substrate and partner proteins due to its intrinsic conformational flexibility. PDI plays multifunctional roles in a variety of pathophysiological events, both as an oxidoreductase and a molecular chaperone. Recent studies have revealed that the conformation and activity of PDI can be regulated in multiple ways, including posttranslational modification and substrate/ligand binding. Here, we summarize recent advances in understanding the function and regulation of PDI in different pathological and physiological events. We propose that the multifunctional roles of PDI are regulated by multiple mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss future directions for the study of PDI, emphasizing how different regulatory modes are linked to the conformational changes and biological functions of PDI in the context of diverse pathophysiologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaojiao Yu
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chih-Chen Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Alhammad R, Khunchai S, Tongmuang N, Limjindaporn T, Yenchitsomanus PT, Mutti L, Krstic-Demonacos M, Demonacos C. Protein disulfide isomerase A1 regulates breast cancer cell immunorecognition in a manner dependent on redox state. Oncol Rep 2020; 44:2406-2418. [PMID: 33125139 PMCID: PMC7610313 DOI: 10.3892/or.2020.7816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidoreductase protein disulphide isomerases (PDI) are involved in the regulation of a variety of biological processes including the modulation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, unfolded protein response (UPR), ER-mitochondria communication and the balance between pro-survival and pro-death pathways. In the current study the role of the PDIA1 family member in breast carcinogenesis was investigated by measuring ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane disruption, ATP production and HLA-G protein levels on the surface of the cellular membrane in the presence or absence of PDIA1. The results showed that this enzyme exerted pro-apoptotic effects in estrogen receptor (ERα)-positive breast cancer MCF-7 and pro-survival in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells. ATP generation was upregulated in PDIA1-silenced MCF-7 cells and downregulated in PDIA1-silenced MDA-MB-231 cells in a manner dependent on the cellular redox status. Furthermore, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells in the presence of PDIA1 expressed higher surface levels of the non-classical human leukocyte antigen (HLA-G) under oxidative stress conditions. Evaluation of the METABRIC datasets showed that low PDIA1 and high HLA-G mRNA expression levels correlated with longer survival in both ERα-positive and ERα-negative stage 2 breast cancer patients. In addition, analysis of the PDIA1 vs. the HLA-G mRNA ratio in the subgroup of the living stage 2 breast cancer patients exhibiting low PDIA1 and high HLA-G mRNA levels revealed that the longer the survival time of the ratio was high PDIA1 and low HLA-G mRNA and occurred predominantly in ERα-positive breast cancer patients whereas in the same subgroup of the ERα-negative breast cancer mainly this ratio was low PDIA1 and high HLA-G mRNA. Taken together these results provide evidence supporting the view that PDIA1 is linked to several hallmarks of breast cancer pathways including the process of antigen processing and presentation and tumor immunorecognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rashed Alhammad
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, School of Health Sciences, Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Sasiprapa Khunchai
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Science, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand
| | - Nopprarat Tongmuang
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Thawornchai Limjindaporn
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Pa-Thai Yenchitsomanus
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Luciano Mutti
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | | | - Constantinos Demonacos
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, School of Health Sciences, Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Urra H, Pihán P, Hetz C. The UPRosome - decoding novel biological outputs of IRE1α function. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:133/15/jcs218107. [PMID: 32788208 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.218107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Different perturbations alter the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), resulting in the accumulation of misfolded proteins in its lumen, a condition termed ER stress. To restore ER proteostasis, a highly conserved pathway is engaged, known as the unfolded protein response (UPR), triggering adaptive programs or apoptosis of terminally damaged cells. IRE1α (also known as ERN1), the most conserved UPR sensor, mediates the activation of responses to determine cell fate under ER stress. The complexity of IRE1α regulation and its signaling outputs is mediated in part by the assembly of a dynamic multi-protein complex, named the UPRosome, that regulates IRE1α activity and the crosstalk with other pathways. We discuss several studies identifying components of the UPRosome that have illuminated novel functions in cell death, autophagy, DNA damage, energy metabolism and cytoskeleton dynamics. Here, we provide a theoretical analysis to assess the biological significance of the UPRosome and present the results of a systematic bioinformatics analysis of the available IRE1α interactome data sets followed by functional enrichment clustering. This in silico approach decoded that IRE1α also interacts with proteins involved in the cell cycle, transport, differentiation, response to viral infection and immune response. Thus, defining the spectrum of IRE1α-binding partners will reveal novel signaling outputs and the relevance of the pathway to human diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hery Urra
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute (BNI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile .,Center for Geroscience, Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago 7800003, Chile.,Program of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Philippe Pihán
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute (BNI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile.,Center for Geroscience, Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago 7800003, Chile.,Program of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Claudio Hetz
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute (BNI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile .,Center for Geroscience, Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago 7800003, Chile.,Program of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile.,The Buck Institute for Research in Aging, Novato, CA 94945, USA
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Coelho JP, Feige MJ. In case of stress, hold tight: phosphorylation switches PDI from an oxidoreductase to a holdase, tuning ER proteostasis. EMBO J 2020; 39:e104880. [PMID: 32239769 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020104880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic cells have evolved multiple responses that allow endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis to be maintained even in the face of acute or chronic stresses. In this issue, Yu et al (2020) describe how site-specific phosphorylation switches protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) from a folding enzyme to a holdase chaperone which regulates ER stress responses, thus highlighting PDI as a key player in ER homeostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joao Pl Coelho
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Matthias J Feige
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Yu J, Li T, Liu Y, Wang X, Zhang J, Wang X, Shi G, Lou J, Wang L, Wang CC, Wang L. Phosphorylation switches protein disulfide isomerase activity to maintain proteostasis and attenuate ER stress. EMBO J 2020; 39:e103841. [PMID: 32149426 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2019103841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulated unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) trigger the unfolded protein response (UPR) to increase ER protein folding capacity. ER proteostasis and UPR signaling need to be regulated in a precise and timely manner. Here, we identify phosphorylation of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), one of the most abundant and critical folding catalysts in the ER, as an early event during ER stress. The secretory pathway kinase Fam20C phosphorylates Ser357 of PDI and responds rapidly to various ER stressors. Phosphorylation of Ser357 induces an open conformation of PDI and turns it from a "foldase" into a "holdase", which is critical for preventing protein misfolding in the ER. Phosphorylated PDI also binds to the lumenal domain of IRE1α, a major UPR signal transducer, and attenuates excessive IRE1α activity. Importantly, PDI-S359A knock-in mice display enhanced IRE1α activation and liver damage under acute ER stress. We conclude that the Fam20C-PDI axis constitutes a post-translational response to maintain ER proteostasis and plays a vital role in protecting against ER stress-induced cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaojiao Yu
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Li
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Xi Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianchao Zhang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xi'e Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guizhi Shi
- Laboratory Animal Center of Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Aviation General Hospital of Beijing, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jizhong Lou
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Likun Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chih-Chen Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|