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Frisvad JC, Møller LLH, Larsen TO, Kumar R, Arnau J. Safety of the fungal workhorses of industrial biotechnology: update on the mycotoxin and secondary metabolite potential of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:9481-9515. [PMID: 30293194 PMCID: PMC6208954 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9354-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review presents an update on the current knowledge of the secondary metabolite potential of the major fungal species used in industrial biotechnology, i.e., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei. These species have a long history of safe use for enzyme production. Like most microorganisms that exist in a challenging environment in nature, these fungi can produce a large variety and number of secondary metabolites. Many of these compounds present several properties that make them attractive for different industrial and medical applications. A description of all known secondary metabolites produced by these species is presented here. Mycotoxins are a very limited group of secondary metabolites that can be produced by fungi and that pose health hazards in humans and other vertebrates when ingested in small amounts. Some mycotoxins are species-specific. Here, we present scientific basis for (1) the definition of mycotoxins including an update on their toxicity and (2) the clarity on misclassification of species and their mycotoxin potential reported in literature, e.g., A. oryzae has been wrongly reported as an aflatoxin producer, due to misclassification of Aspergillus flavus strains. It is therefore of paramount importance to accurately describe the mycotoxins that can potentially be produced by a fungal species that is to be used as a production organism and to ensure that production strains are not capable of producing mycotoxins during enzyme production. This review is intended as a reference paper for authorities, companies, and researchers dealing with secondary metabolite assessment, risk evaluation for food or feed enzyme production, or considerations on the use of these species as production hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens C Frisvad
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (DTU Bioengineering), Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, B. 221, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Lars L H Møller
- Department of Product Safety, Novozymes A/S, Krogshoejvej 36, 2880, Bagsvaerd, Denmark
| | - Thomas O Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (DTU Bioengineering), Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, B. 221, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ravi Kumar
- Department of Genomics and Bioinformatics, Novozymes Inc., 1445 Drew Ave., Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - José Arnau
- Department of Fungal Strain Technology and Strain Approval Support, Novozymes A/S, Krogshoejvej 36, 2880, Bagsvaerd, Denmark
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Iitsuka H, Koizumi K, Inujima A, Suzaki M, Mizuno Y, Takeshita Y, Eto T, Otsuka Y, Shimada R, Liu M, Ikeda K, Nakano M, Suzuki R, Maruyama K, Zhou Y, Sakurai H, Shibahara N. Discovery of a sugar-based nanoparticle universally existing in boiling herbal water extracts and their immunostimulant effect. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 16:62-68. [PMID: 30338298 PMCID: PMC6186954 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Herbal medicine is mainly prepared from boiling herbal water extracts. Many epoch-making immunosuppressant drugs, such as glycyrrhizic acid (old example) and FTY720 (current example), were developed from herbal secondary metabolites in the boiling water extract by partition with organic solvents. However, few immunostimulants have been discovered by this method. Instead of the usual method, we aimed to find a novel immunostimulant component by two unique methods in the research of herbal medicine: ultracentrifugation and electron microscopy. The immunostimulant was not a secondary metabolite, as expected, but the structure was a nanoparticle formed by a polysaccharide. In addition, we clarified the immune effect of the nanoparticle. Intake of the nanoparticle by phagocytosis resulted in immunostimulant effects by increasing the genes and proteins of inflammatory cytokines in macrophage cells. The immunostimulant effects were inhibited by a phagocytosis inhibitor, cytochalasin D. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to describe the discovery of a nanoparticle in boiling herbal water extracts and its immunostimulant properties. This study will provide additional understanding of the efficacy of herbal medicine, in that the immunostimulant nanoparticle universally exists in boiling herbal water extracts. Thus, traditional herbal medicine may be an oldest known nanomedicine. Furthermore, this study suggests that the immunostimulant nanoparticle simply can be obtained from herbal medicine only by ultracentrifugation. We hope that this simple strategy will substantially contribute to drug development, including vaccine adjuvant, in the future. Nanoparticles are universally present in boiling herbal water extracts. Nanoparticles are obtained from these extracts by ultracentrifugation. Nanoparticles are mainly composed of polysaccharides. Nanoparticles have an immunostimulatory effect on macrophage cells. This effect is exhibited by the phagocytosis of exogenous nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirofumi Iitsuka
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Keiichi Koizumi
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Akiko Inujima
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Mikiko Suzaki
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yusuke Mizuno
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Takeshita
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Takeshi Eto
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Otsuka
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Ryo Shimada
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Mengxin Liu
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ikeda
- Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Minoru Nakano
- Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Ryo Suzuki
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Kazuo Maruyama
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery System, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Yue Zhou
- Department of Cancer Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Sakurai
- Department of Cancer Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Naotoshi Shibahara
- Division of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
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