51
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Laraway S, Snycerski S, Michael J, Poling A. Motivating operations and terms to describe them: some further refinements. J Appl Behav Anal 2003. [PMID: 14596584 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2003.36.407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, behavior analysts have increasingly used the term establishing operation (EO) to refer to environmental events that influence the behavioral effects of operant consequences. Nonetheless, some elements of current terminology regarding EOs may interfere with applied behavior analysts' efforts to predict, control, describe, and understand behavior. The present paper (a) describes how the current conceptualization of the EO is in need of revision, (b) suggests alternative terms, including the generic term motivating operation (MO), and (c) provides examples of MOs and their behavioral effects using articles from the applied behavior analysis literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Laraway
- Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo 49008, USA
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52
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DeLeon IG, Kahng S, Rodriguez-Catter V, Sveinsdóttir I, Sadler C. Assessment of aberrant behavior maintained by wheelchair movement in a child with developmental disabilities. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2003; 24:381-390. [PMID: 12951134 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-4222(03)00056-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A child that used a wheelchair was anecdotally observed to display little aggressive behavior when being pushed in his wheelchair, but higher rates of aggressive behavior when movement was terminated. A functional analysis was conducted to systematically assess the relationship between aggression and wheelchair movement. The functional analysis results revealed elevated rates of aggression when it resulted in being briefly pushed in the wheelchair. This functional hypothesis was subsequently validated by teaching the child to request movement through appropriate means and demonstrating that aggression decreased under treatment conditions. These results extend prior research on functional analysis by demonstrating a previously unreported behavioral function particular to individuals with motor deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iser G DeLeon
- Neurobehavioral Unit, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 North Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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53
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Madden GJ, Perone M. Effects of alternative reinforcement on human behavior: the source does matter. J Exp Anal Behav 2003; 79:193-206. [PMID: 12822686 PMCID: PMC1284929 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2003.79-193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Competing theories regarding the effects of delivering periodic response-independent reinforcement (more accurately, response-independent points exchanged for money) on a baseline rate of behavior were evaluated in human subjects. Contiguity theory holds that these events decrease target responding because incompatible behavior is adventitiously strengthened when the point deliveries follow target behavior closely in time. Matching theory holds that response-independent points, like any other alternative reinforcer, should reduce target responding. On this view, temporal contiguity between target responding and response-independent point delivery is unimportant. In our experiment, four different responses (moving a joystick in four different directions) were reinforced with points exchangeable for money according to four independent variable-interval schedules. Different schedules of point delivery were then superimposed on these baselines. When all superimposed point deliveries occurred immediately after one of the four responses (the target response), time allocated to target responding increased. When the superimposed point deliveries could be delivered at any time, time allocated to target responding declined and other behavior increased. When superimposed points could never immediately follow target responses, time allocated to target responding decreased further and other behavior or pausing predominated. The findings underscore the contribution of temporal contiguity in the effects of response-independent deliveries of food, money, points, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Madden
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin--Eau Claire, 54702-4004, USA.
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54
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Unconditioned and Conditioned Establishing Operations in Organizational Behavior Management. JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT 2001. [DOI: 10.1300/j075v21n02_03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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55
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Ringdahl JE, Vollmer TR, Borrero JC, Connell JE. Fixed-time schedule effects as a function of baseline reinforcement rate. J Appl Behav Anal 2001; 34:1-15. [PMID: 11317982 PMCID: PMC1284291 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2001.34-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Using an arbitrary response, we evaluated fixed-time (FT) schedules that were either similar or dissimilar to a baseline (response-dependent) reinforcement schedule and extinction. Results suggested that both FT schedules and extinction resulted in decreased responding. However, FT schedules were more effective in reducing response rates if the FT reinforcer rate was dissimilar to baseline reinforcer rates. Possible reasons for this difference were evaluated with data analysis methods designed to identify adventitious response-reinforcer relations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Ringdahl
- University Hospital School, The University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242-1011, USA.
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56
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LeBlanc LA, Hagopian LP, Marhefka JM, Wilke AE. Effects of therapist gender and type of attention on assessment and treatment of attention-maintained destructive behavior. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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57
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Hanley GP, Iwata BA, Thompson RH. Reinforcement schedule thinning following treatment with functional communication training. J Appl Behav Anal 2001; 34:17-38. [PMID: 11317985 PMCID: PMC1284294 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2001.34-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated four methods for increasing the practicality of functional communication training (FCT) by decreasing the frequency of reinforcement for alternative behavior. Three participants whose problem behaviors were maintained by positive reinforcement were treated successfully with FCT in which reinforcement for alternative behavior was initially delivered on fixed-ratio (FR) 1 schedules. One participant was then exposed to increasing delays to reinforcement under FR 1, a graduated fixed-interval (FI) schedule, and a graduated multiple-schedule arrangement in which signaled periods of reinforcement and extinction were alternated. Results showed that (a) increasing delays resulted in extinction of the alternative behavior, (b) the FI schedule produced undesirably high rates of the alternative behavior, and (c) the multiple schedule resulted in moderate and stable levels of the alternative behavior as the duration of the extinction component was increased. The other 2 participants were exposed to graduated mixed-schedule (unsignaled alternation between reinforcement and extinction components) and multiple-schedule (signaled alternation between reinforcement and extinction components) arrangements in which the durations of the reinforcement and extinction components were modified. Results obtained for these 2 participants indicated that the use of discriminative stimuli in the multiple schedule facilitated reinforcement schedule thinning. Upon completion of treatment, problem behavior remained low (or at zero), whereas alternative behavior was maintained as well as differentiated during a multiple-schedule arrangement consisting of a 4-min extinction period followed by a 1-min reinforcement period.
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Affiliation(s)
- G P Hanley
- Psychology Department, The University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, USA
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58
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Britton LN, Carr JE, Kellum KK, Dozier CL, Weil TM. A variation of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of aberrant behavior. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2000; 21:425-435. [PMID: 11153827 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-4222(00)00056-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effectiveness of a variation of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) that incorporated a stimulus-delay procedure in the reduction of aberrant behavior maintained by positive reinforcement. Functional analyses for three individuals diagnosed with developmental disabilities indicated that their behaviors were maintained by positive reinforcement: one in the form of access to a tangible item, another by attention, and the third by physical contact. We implemented NCR with the delay procedure with two participants using reversal designs to evaluate effects. We also compared this NCR variation and DRO with the third participant to evaluate reinforcer-delivery rates. The variation of NCR was successful in reducing all aberrant behavior to near-zero levels. A comparison of reinforcer delivery between NCR with the stimulus-delay procedure and DRO demonstrated that the participant accessed more reinforcement with NCR. Results are discussed in the context of enhancing decelerative interventions with emphases on minimizing response effort for caregivers and maximizing access to reinforcement for the individuals.
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59
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Carr JE, Coriaty S, Wilder DA, Gaunt BT, Dozier CL, Britton LN, Avina C, Reed CL. A review of "noncontingent" reinforcement as treatment for the aberrant behavior of individuals with developmental disabilities. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2000; 21:377-391. [PMID: 11100801 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-4222(00)00050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The term noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) refers to the delivery of an aberrant behavior's known reinforcer on a response-independent basis. The typical result is a decrease in responding from baseline (i.e., reinforcement) levels. NCR has become one of the most reported function-based treatments for aberrant behavior in the recent literature. The purpose of this review is to briefly discuss the history of the procedure and summarize the findings from the treatment research literature. The review is organized into the following sections: (a) basic research on NCR, (b) NCR as a control procedure, (c) NCR as a function-based treatment, (d) considerations in the programming of NCR schedules, (e) behavior-change mechanisms underlying NCR effects, and (t) directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Carr
- University of Nevada, Reno 89557-0062, USA.
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60
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Strand PS. A modern behavioral perspective on child conduct disorder: integrating behavioral momentum and matching theory. Clin Psychol Rev 2000; 20:593-615. [PMID: 10860168 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-7358(99)00010-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that knowledge produced within the operant laboratory is of little or no use to clinicians. I argue, on the contrary, that laboratory science has provided clinicians with two general principles that may expand the focus of behavioral family therapy to incorporate a wide range of clinical interventions that have heretofore been considered nonbehavioral. These principles, matching theory and behavioral momentum, outline the relativity of reinforcement and the persistence of behavior in the absence of reinforcement, respectively. These principles make specific predictions concerning clinical interventions aimed not only at identified reinforcement contingencies, but also the context within which reinforcement contingencies are operative. This expanded behavioral formulation allows both the clinician and the researcher a framework for designing, implementing, and assessing techniques that target cognition, affect, and interpersonal relationships, as well as specific behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Strand
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Richland 99352, USA.
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61
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The use of functional assessment to facilitate treatment adherence: A case of a child with HIV and pill refusal. COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL PRACTICE 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s1077-7229(00)80084-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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62
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Hagopian LP, LeBlanc LA, Maglieri KA. Noncontingent attention for the treatment of excessive medical complaints in a medically fragile man with mental retardation. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2000; 21:215-221. [PMID: 10939319 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-4222(00)00035-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Providing medical care to individuals with developmental disabilities who have medical problems may pose several challenges with regard to accurate and reliable report of symptoms. In addition, medical complaints may take on operant functions such as an attention function or an escape function as a result of the natural consequences in the environment. It may be difficult to withhold reinforcers for medical complaints such as attention or escape, making a standard analog functional analysis or extinction-based intervention less appropriate. Recent studies have shown that noncontingent reinforcement without extinction and noncontingent reinforcement using alternative reinforcers can be effective in reducing problem behavior. One practical implication of these findings is that noncontingent reinforcement may be an appropriate treatment in cases where the reinforcer responsible for behavioral maintenance cannot be identified or withheld. In the current study, attention served as a reinforcer for a young man with medical complaints and noncontingent attention without ignoring effectively reduced the participant's excessive medical complaints.
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Affiliation(s)
- L P Hagopian
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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63
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Kahng SW, Iwata BA, Thompson RH, Hanley GP. A method for identifying satiation versus extinction effects under noncontingent reinforcement schedules. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:419-32. [PMID: 11214020 PMCID: PMC1284268 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated one method for determining whether response suppression under noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) is a function of satiation or extinction. Three individuals with developmental disabilities who engaged in self-injurious behavior (SIB) or aggression participated. Results of functional analyses indicated that their problem behavior was maintained by social-positive reinforcement. NCR procedures, individualized for each participant, were implemented in a multiple baseline across subjects design and were associated with decreases in all participants' problem behavior. Identification of the mechanism by which NCR produced these effects was based on examination of cumulative records showing response patterns during and immediately following each NCR session. Satiation during NCR should lead to a temporary increase in responding during the post-NCR (extinction) period due to a transition from the availability to the unavailability of reinforcement (satiation to deprivation). Alternatively, extinction during NCR should reveal no increase in responding during the extinction period because the contingency for the problem behavior would remain unchanged and the transition from satiation to deprivation conditions would be irrelevant. Results suggested that the operative mechanisms of NCR were idiosyncratic across the 3 participants and appeared to change during treatment for 1 of the participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Kahng
- Kennedy Krieger Institute and The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
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64
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Hagopian LP, Crockett JL, van Stone M, DeLeon IG, Bowman LG. Effects of noncontingent reinforcement on problem behavior and stimulus engagement: the role of satiation, extinction, and alternative reinforcement. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:433-49. [PMID: 11214021 PMCID: PMC1284269 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with and without extinction on problem behavior and stimulus engagement (consumption of reinforcement) of 4 participants. Reductions in problem behavior using NCR have frequently been attributed to both satiation of the reinforcer and extinction. In the current study, aspects of the NCR treatment effects were difficult to explain based solely on either a satiation or an extinction account. Specifically, it was found that stimulus engagement remained high throughout the NCR treatment analysis, and that problem behavior was reduced to near-zero levels during NCR without extinction. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the satiation and extinction hypotheses frequently described in the applied literature. Findings from basic studies examining the effects of response-independent schedules are presented, and are used as the basis for a matching theory account of NCR-related effects. It is proposed that reductions in problem behavior observed during NCR interventions may be a function of the availability of alternative sources of reinforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- L P Hagopian
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
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65
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Worsdell AS, Iwata BA, Conners J, Kahng SW, Thompson RH. Relative influences of establishing operations and reinforcement contingencies on self-injurious behavior during functional analyses. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:451-61. [PMID: 11214022 PMCID: PMC1284270 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the typical functional analysis in which the antecedent and consequent events associated with problem behavior are manipulated, the control condition involves elimination of both the relevant establishing operation (EO) and its associated contingency through a schedule of noncontingent reinforcement (usually fixed-time [FT] 30 s). In some functional analyses, however, antecedent events are manipulated in the absence of differential consequences, and a common test condition in such analyses also involves the delivery of reinforcement on an FT 30-s schedule. Thus, the same schedule of reinforcement (FT 30 s) is not considered to be an EO in the former type of analysis but is considered to be an EO in the latter. We examined the relative influences of EOs and reinforcement contingencies on problem behavior by exposing 6 individuals who engaged in self-injurious behavior (SIB) to four combinations of functional analysis conditions: EO present/contingency present, EO absent/contingency present, EO present/contingency absent, and EO absent/contingency absent. Results indicated that the only condition in which high rates of SIB were observed consistently was one in which the EO and the reinforcement contingency were both present. Implications of these results for the design of functional analysis test and control conditions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Worsdell
- The University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, USA
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66
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Van Camp CM, Lerman DC, Kelley ME, Contrucci SA, Vorndran CM. Variable-time reinforcement schedules in the treatment of socially maintained problem behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:545-57. [PMID: 11214030 PMCID: PMC1284278 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) consists of delivering a reinforcer on a time-based schedule, independent of responding. Studies evaluating the effectiveness of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have used fixed-time (FT) schedules of reinforcement. In this study, the efficacy of NCR with variable-time (VT) schedules was evaluated by comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who engaged in problem behavior maintained by positive reinforcement. Both FT and VT schedules were effective in reducing problem behavior. These findings suggest that VT schedules can be used to treat problem behavior maintained by social consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Van Camp
- Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803, USA
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67
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Kahng SW, Iwata BA, DeLeon IG, Wallace MD. A comparison of procedures for programming noncontingent reinforcement schedules. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:223-31. [PMID: 10885529 PMCID: PMC1284240 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We compared two methods for programming and thinning noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) schedules during the treatment of self-injurious behavior (SIB). The participants were 3 individuals who had been diagnosed with mental retardation. Results of functional analyses indicated that all participants' SIB was maintained by positive reinforcement (i.e., access to attention or food). Following baseline, the effects of two NCR schedule-thinning procedures were compared in multielement designs. One schedule (fixed increment) was initially set at fixed-time 10-s reinforcer deliveries and was also thinned according to fixed-time intervals. The other schedule (adjusting IRT) was initially determined by participants' baseline interresponse times (IRTs) for SIB and was thinned based on IRTs observed during subsequent treatment sessions. Results indicated that both schedules were effective in initially reducing SIB and in maintaining response suppression as the schedules were thinned.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Kahng
- Neurobehavioral Unit, Kennedy Krieger Institute and The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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68
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Goh HL, Iwata BA, DeLeon IG. Competition between noncontingent and contingent reinforcement schedules during response acquisition. J Appl Behav Anal 2000; 33:195-205. [PMID: 10885527 PMCID: PMC1284238 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We examined the extent to which noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), when used as treatment to reduce problem behavior, might interfere with differential reinforcement contingencies designed to strengthen alternative behavior. After conducting a functional analysis to identify the reinforcers maintaining 2 participants' self-injurious behavior (SIB), we delivered those reinforcers under dense NCR schedules. We delivered the same reinforcers concurrently under differential-reinforcement-of-alternative-behavior (DRA) contingencies in an attempt to strengthen replacement behaviors (mands). Results showed that the NCR plus DRA intervention was associated with a decrease in SIB but little or no increase in appropriate mands. In a subsequent phase, when the NCR schedule was thinned while the DRA schedule remained unchanged, SIB remained low and mands increased. These results suggest that dense NCR schedules may alter establishing operations that result in not only suppression of problem behavior but also interference with the acquisition of appropriate behavior. Thus, the strengthening of socially appropriate behaviors as replacements for problem behavior during NCR interventions might best be achieved if the NCR schedule is first thinned.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Goh
- The University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, USA
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69
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Fisher WW, Thompson RH, DeLeon IG, Piazza CC, Kuhn DE, Rodriguez-Catter V, Adelinis JD. Noncontingent reinforcement: effects of satiation versus choice responding. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 1999; 20:411-427. [PMID: 10641251 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-4222(99)00022-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Recent research findings suggest that the initial reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) schedules on destructive behavior result from the establishing effects of an antecedent stimulus (i.e., the availability of "free" reinforcement) rather than extinction. A number of authors have suggested that these antecedent effects result primarily from reinforcer satiation, but an alternative hypothesis is that the individual attempts to access contingent reinforcement primarily when noncontingent reinforcement is unavailable, but chooses not to access contingent reinforcement when noncontingent reinforcement is available. If the satiation hypothesis is more accurate, then the reductive effects of NCR should increase over the course of a session, especially for denser schedules of NCR, and should occur during both NCR delivery and the NCR inter-reinforcement interval (NCR IRI). If the choice hypothesis is more accurate, then the reductive effects of NCR should be relatively constant over the course of a session for both denser and leaner schedules of NCR and should occur almost exclusively during the NCR interval (rather than the NCR IRI). To evaluate these hypotheses, we examined within-session trends of destructive behavior with denser and leaner schedules of NCR (without extinction), and also measured responding in the NCR interval separate from responding in the NCR IRI. Reductions in destructive behavior were mostly due to the participants choosing not to access contingent reinforcement when NCR was being delivered and only minimally due to reinforcer satiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W W Fisher
- Neurobehavioral Unit, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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70
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71
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Vollmer TR, Progar PR, Lalli JS, Van Camp CM, Sierp BJ, Wright CS, Nastasi J, Eisenschink KJ. Fixed-time schedules attenuate extinction-induced phenomena in the treatment of severe aberrant behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 1998; 31:529-42. [PMID: 9891392 PMCID: PMC1284146 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1998.31-529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We compared the effects of extinction (EXT) and fixed-time (FT) schedules as treatment for severe problem behavior displayed by 3 individuals with developmental disabilities. First, functional analyses identified the reinforcers maintaining aberrant behavior for all 3 individuals. Next, EXT and FT schedules were compared using a multielement design. During EXT, the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior was withheld. During FT, the reinforcers were presented response independently at preset intervals. Results showed that FT schedules were generally more effective than EXT schedules in reducing aberrant behavior. FT schedules may be used in situations when extinction-induced phenomena are problematic.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Vollmer
- University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, USA
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72
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Carr JE, Bailey JS, Ecott CL, Lucker KD, Weil TM. On the effects of noncontingent delivery of differing magnitudes of reinforcement. J Appl Behav Anal 1998; 31:313-21. [PMID: 9757577 PMCID: PMC1284125 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1998.31-313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We conducted a parametric analysis of response suppression associated with different magnitudes of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR). Participants were 5 adults with severe or profound mental retardation who engaged in a manual response that was reinforced on variable-ratio schedules during baseline. Participants were then exposed to NCR via multielement and reversal designs. The fixed-time schedules were kept constant while the magnitude of the reinforcing stimulus was varied across three levels (low, medium, and high). Results showed that high-magnitude NCR schedules produced large and consistent reductions in response rates, medium-magnitude schedules produced less consistent and smaller reductions, and low-magnitude schedules produced little or no effect on responding. These results suggest that (a) NCR affects responding by altering an establishing operation (i.e., attenuating a deprivation state) rather than through extinction, and (b) magnitude of reinforcement is an important variable in determining the effectiveness of NCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Carr
- Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno 89557-0062, USA.
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73
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Abstract
The rebirth of interest in functional analysis is described. Clarification among conflicting terms is offered as a way of facilitating research in the area. Three phases of functional approach to assessment are identified: (a) descriptive, (b) interpretive, and (c) verification. Five assessment methods common to assessment, generally, are shown to be useful in both descriptive and verification phases. Evaluation of functional approaches requires attention to the psychometric adequacy of these methods. Accuracy, reliability, and validity concepts are reviewed briefly and their application to functional strategies is described. The use of treatment validity in the functional analysis of functional analysis is mentioned as the ultimate strategy for evaluating the adequacy of this assessment approach. The paper ends with a discussion of problems of multiple control of behavior, behavioral classification systems, training parents and other mediators in the functional approach, cost-effectiveness, and the place of functional analysis in a reorganized health care delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Cone
- Department of Psychology and Family Studies, United States International University, San Diego, CA 92131, USA
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74
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Hanley GP, Piazza CC, Fisher WW. Noncontingent presentation of attention and alternative stimuli in the treatment of attention-maintained destructive behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 1997; 30:229-37. [PMID: 9210303 PMCID: PMC1284042 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that destructive behavior may be reduced through noncontingent presentation of attention when attention is identified as the stimulus responsible for behavioral maintenance. Because it may not always be possible to deliver attention in all situations, we examined the extent to which alternative stimuli that have been identified through a choice assessment would substitute for attention (the functional analysis-based reinforcer) in a noncontingent reinforcement procedure. Prior to treatment, functional analyses demonstrated that the destructive behavior of 2 clients with mental retardation was maintained by adult attention. Next, a stimulus choice assessment identified highly preferred tangible items for the 2 clients. Finally, we compared the effectiveness of two noncontingent reinforcement procedures: continuous noncontingent access to attention and continuous noncontingent access to the tangible item identified in the choice assessment. For both clients, these noncontingent reinforcement procedures reduced destructive behavior. The results are discussed in terms of the clinical implications for the treatment of destructive behavior using functional and alternative stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- G P Hanley
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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75
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Hanley GP, Piazza CC, Fisher WW, Contrucci SA, Maglieri KA. Evaluation of client preference for function-based treatment packages. J Appl Behav Anal 1997; 30:459-73. [PMID: 9316259 PMCID: PMC1284062 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Functional communication training (FCT) and noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) are commonly prescribed treatments that are based on the results of a functional analysis. Both treatments involve delivery of the reinforcer that is responsible for the maintenance of destructive behavior. One major difference between the two treatment procedures is that client responding determines reinforcement delivery with FCT (e.g., reinforcement of communication is delivered on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule) but not with NCR (e.g., reinforcement is delivered on a fixed-time 30-s schedule). In the current investigation, FCT and NCR were equally effective in reducing 2 participants' destructive behavior that was sensitive to attention as reinforcement. After the treatment analysis, the participants' relative preference for each treatment was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chains procedure. Both participants demonstrated a preference for the FCT procedure. The results are discussed in terms of treatment efficacy and preference for control over when reinforcement is delivered. In addition, a method is demonstrated in which clients with developmental disabilities can participate in selecting treatments that are designed to reduce their destructive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- G P Hanley
- Neurobehavioral Unit, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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76
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Lalli JS, Casey SD, Kates K. Noncontingent reinforcement as treatment for severe problem behavior: some procedural variations. J Appl Behav Anal 1997; 30:127-36; quiz 136-7. [PMID: 9103988 PMCID: PMC1284026 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) as a treatment for problem behavior has typically included (a) continuous access to reinforcers at the onset of treatment and (b) extinction. We extended research on NCR by conducting a three-phase preliminary investigation of these components. In Phase 1, a functional analysis showed that the problem behavior of 3 participants with developmental disabilities was maintained by tangible positive reinforcement. In Phase 2, treatment started with the initial NCR interval based on the latency to the first problem behavior during baseline. In Phase 3, treatment consisted of NCR without extinction to determine whether extinction was an essential treatment component. Results showed that the initial NCR schedule based on latency (Phase 2) and NCR without extinction (Phase 3) were effective for reducing rates of problem behavior compared with baseline. Findings are discussed regarding the initial schedule of reinforcement and extinction as components of NCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Lalli
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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77
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Fischer SM, Iwata BA, Mazaleski JL. Noncontingent delivery of arbitrary reinforcers as treatment for self-injurious behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 1997; 30:239-49. [PMID: 9210304 PMCID: PMC1284043 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Results of recent research have shown that noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) can be effective in reducing the frequency of behavior problems. In typical NCR applications, the reinforcer that is responsible for behavioral maintenance (as demonstrated through a functional analysis) no longer follows occurrences of the target behavior but instead is delivered according to a time-based schedule. Thus, it is unclear if NCR would be effective if the target behavior continued to be reinforced or if arbitrary reinforcers (i.e., those irrelevant to behavioral maintenance) were substituted for the maintaining reinforcers in the NCR procedure. In this study, 2 individuals whose self-injurious behavior (SIB) was maintained by positive reinforcement were exposed to conditions in which arbitrary and maintaining reinforcers were withheld and were delivered either contingently or noncontingently. Results indicated that noncontingent delivery of arbitrary reinforcers was effective in reducing SIB even though occurrences of SIB produced access to the maintaining reinforcer. These results suggest that (a) arbitrary reinforcers may sometimes be substituted for maintaining reinforcers, (b) an important component of NCR procedures is alteration of a behavior's establishing operation, and (c) NCR with arbitrary reinforcers might therefore be effective when maintaining reinforcers cannot be identified or withheld during the course of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Fischer
- University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, USA
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78
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Vollmer TR, Ringdahl JE, Roane HS, Marcus BA. Negative side effects of noncontingent reinforcement. J Appl Behav Anal 1997; 30:161-4. [PMID: 9157097 PMCID: PMC1284036 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) has emerged as a treatment package for severe behavior problems. Although concerns about potential side effects (such as incidental reinforcement) have been raised, there have been few reported negative side effects in published studies to date. In this article, we report an NCR treatment evaluation for severe aggression that produced (a) an extinction burst and (b) incidental reinforcement. These side effects were evaluated by examining within-session response patterns and response distributions. As a solution, a brief omission contingency was added to the reinforcement schedule. The omission contingency resulted in decreased aggression rates.
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79
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Abstract
The influence of antecedent events on behavior disorders has been relatively understudied by applied behavior analysts. This lack of research may be due to a focus on consequences as determinants of behavior and a historical disagreement on a conceptual framework for describing and interpreting antecedent variables. We suggest that antecedent influences can be described using terms derived from basic behavioral principles and that their functional properties can be adequately interpreted as discriminative and establishing operations. A set of studies on assessment and treatment of behavior disorders was selected for review based on their relevance to the topic of antecedent events. These studies were categorized as focusing on assessment of antecedent events, antecedent treatments for behavior disorders maintained by either positive or negative reinforcement, and special cases of antecedent events in behavior disorders. Some directions for future research on antecedent influences in the analysis and treatment of behavior disorders are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Smith
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, Denton 76203, USA.
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80
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Carr JE, Taylor CC, Wallander RJ, Reiss ML. A functional-analytic approach to the diagnosis of a transient tic disorder. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1996; 27:291-7. [PMID: 8959431 DOI: 10.1016/s0005-7916(96)00025-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The diagnostic utility of functional analyses has been demonstrated with a variety of behaviors including tics. Whereas previous analyses have focused on the discovery of maintaining variables to aid in treatment prescription, we employed a functional analysis to confirm a clinical diagnosis. An 11 year old male student, who had not been previously diagnosed with a tic disorder, exhibited multiple vocal tic-like behaviors which had persisted over a period of time. Teacher reports conflicted regarding the possible etiology of these behaviors. Hence, a functional analysis was conducted in the classroom to determine if the behaviors were maintained by operant variables. Our hypothesis stated that the occurrence of vocal behaviors across experimental conditions would strongly indicate the presence of a tic disorder. The functional analysis included the following conditions: attention, escape, alone, freeplay, and high sensory stimulation. We used a multi-element design to evaluate the effects of the different stimulus conditions on vocal-behavior frequency. Data indicated the student exhibited vocal behaviors in all conditions. However, the behaviors were partially exacerbated in the attention and escape conditions. Results supported the diagnosis of a transient tic disorder affected by operant variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Carr
- Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno 89557-0062, USA
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81
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Vollmer TR, Smith RG. Some current themes in functional analysis research. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 1996; 17:229-249. [PMID: 8743555 DOI: 10.1016/0891-4222(96)00006-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to review and discuss some current themes in functional analysis research. The paper is divided into two general sections; one section discusses clinical application of functional analysis and a second section discusses functional analysis as a research method. In the first section, current issues related to treatment logic and development are reviewed. Also, clinical limitations of functional analysis are described, including treatment and assessment implementation issues (such as time and resource constraints). In the second section, three areas of research are reviewed with suggestions for further research: the analysis of diverse response topographies, the analysis of basic behavioral processes, and the evaluation of methodological refinements.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Vollmer
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803, USA
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82
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Fisher WW, Ninness HA, Piazza CC, Owen-DeSchryver JS. On the reinforcing effects of the content of verbal attention. J Appl Behav Anal 1996; 29:235-8. [PMID: 8682738 PMCID: PMC1279897 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1996.29-235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
During a functional analysis, a boy with autism and oppositional defiant disorder displayed destructive behavior that was maintained by attention in the form of verbal reprimands (e.g., "Don't hit me"). In a second analysis, contingent verbal reprimands produced higher rates of the behavior than contingent statements that were unrelated to the target response (e.g., "It is sunny today"), suggesting that some forms of attention were more reinforcing than others. A treatment based on these analyses reduced the behavior to near-zero levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- W W Fisher
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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83
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Marcus BA, Vollmer TR. Combining noncontingent reinforcement and differential reinforcement schedules as treatment for aberrant behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 1996; 29:43-51. [PMID: 8881343 PMCID: PMC1279872 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1996.29-43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Research has shown that noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) can be an effective behavior-reduction procedure when based on a functional analysis. The effects of NCR may be a result of elimination of the contingency between aberrant behavior and reinforcing consequences (extinction) or frequent and free access to reinforcers that may reduce the participant's motivation to engage in aberrant behaviors or mands. If motivation is momentarily reduced, behavior such as mands may not be sensitive to positive reinforcement. In this study, for 3 children with aberrant behavior maintained by tangible positive reinforcement, differential-reinforcement-of-alternative-behavior schedules were superimposed on NCR schedules to determine if mands could be strengthened. Results for the participants indicated that NCR did not preclude reinforcement of mands.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Marcus
- Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803, USA
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84
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Lerman DC, Iwata BA. Developing a technology for the use of operant extinction in clinical settings: an examination of basic and applied research. J Appl Behav Anal 1996; 29:345-82; discussion 383-5. [PMID: 8926226 PMCID: PMC1283997 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1996.29-345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Extinction of operant behavior, which involves terminating the reinforcement contingency that maintains a response, is important to the development, generalization, and reduction of behavior in clinical settings. We review basic and applied research findings on variables that influence the direct and indirect effects of extinction and discuss the potential value of a general technology for the use of extinction. We suggest that current research findings are not sufficient for the development of a comprehensive, applied technology of extinction and provide extensive guidelines for further studies on factors that may affect the course of extinction in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Lerman
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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85
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Vollmer TR, Marcus BA, Ringdahl JE. Noncontingent escape as treatment for self-injurious behavior maintained by negative reinforcement. J Appl Behav Anal 1995; 28:15-26. [PMID: 7706146 PMCID: PMC1279782 DOI: 10.1901/jaba.1995.28-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We extended research on the role of noncontingent positive reinforcement following a functional analysis of attention-maintained self-injurious behavior to self-injury maintained by negative reinforcement in 2 young males with developmental disabilities. During a pretreatment functional analysis, each participant's self-injury was shown to be differentially sensitive to escape from instructional activities as negative reinforcement. During noncontingent escape, escape from learning activities was provided on a fixed-time schedule that was not influenced by the participant's behavior. One participant was also exposed to differential negative reinforcement of other behavior. During this condition, escape from instructional activities was provided contingent on the omission of self-injury for prespecified intervals. Results showed that the provision of escape, even when noncontingent, resulted in significant reductions in self-injury. These results are particularly interesting in light of the experimental history of noncontingent reinforcement as a control rather than as a therapeutic procedure. Noncontingent escape is discussed as a form of extinction that may be less likely than other forms of extinction to produce severe side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Vollmer
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803
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