Colonic abnormalities on CT in adult hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile colitis: prevalence and significance of findings

Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management of Clostridium difficile infection

Clostridium difficile infection is an important health problem worldwide and leads to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly among the elderly population. Antibiotics, especially those with a broad spectrum, often trigger the infection; hence the use of unnecessary antibiotics should be avoided. Mild to moderate cases respond to metronidazole or vancomycin. Severe cases may require bowel resection. Chronic relapsing cases require a prolonged course of antibiotics, immunoglobulin, probiotics, and, occasionally, feces enema. This review provides a comprehensive update on pathogenesis and management of Clostridium difficile infection for health professionals all over the world.

Clostridium difficile–associated Diarrhea in Heart Transplant Recipients: Is Hypogammaglobulinemia the Answer?

BACKGROUND

Information regarding Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) after solid-organ transplantation (SOT) is scarce, particularly after heart transplantation (HT). Although host immune response to C. difficile plays a substantial role in the outcome of this infection, the responsibility of hypogammaglobulinemia (HGG) as a predisposing condition for CDAD has not been studied in SOT. We analyzed the incidence, clinical presentation, outcome and risk factors, including HGG, of CDAD after HT.

METHODS

Two hundred thirty-five patients who underwent HT (1993 to 2005) were included. Transplantation procedure and immunosuppression were standard. From January 1999 HGG was systematically searched and corrected when IgG levels were <400 mg/dl or severe infection was present. Toxin-producing C. difficile was detected by means of cytotoxin assay and culture of stool samples. Patients with and without CDAD were compared for identification of risk factors.

RESULTS

CDAD was detected in 35 patients (14.9%). Incidence decreased significantly since HGG was sought and treated: 29 (20.6%) in the first period, and 6 (6.4%) in the second (p = 0.003). CDAD appeared a mean of 32 days (range 5 to 3,300 days) after HT. No related death or episode of fulminant colitis was detected. At least one episode of recurrence was noted in 28.6% of patients. Severe HGG was found to be the only independent risk factor for CDAD after HT (RR 5.8; 95% CI: 1.05 to 32.1; p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

C. difficile is a significant cause of diarrhea in HT recipients and post-transplant HGG is independently associated with an increased risk. The potential role of immunoglobulin administration in this population requires further study.

Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea in adults. The purpose of this review is to increase awareness that infection from C. difficile is not always indolent, but with fulminant colitis, it can be lethal. The epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment of C. difficile infection are discussed, with special emphasis on management of fulminant colitis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Clostridium difficile causes fulminant colitis in 3-8% of patients. Early predictors of disease include immunosuppression, hypotension, hypoalbuminemia, and a pronounced leukocytosis. In patients with fulminant colitis, early colectomy before vasopressor therapy is required and may improve survival.

SUMMARY

The incidence and virulence of C. difficile infection are increasing. Antibiotic use and length of hospital stay correlate strongly with infection. Oral or intravenous metronidazole is the recommended first-line therapy, with discontinuation of systemic antibiotics if possible. Forty percent of patients may have a prolonged course and 20% will relapse despite adequate therapy. Fulminant colitis develops in 3-8% of patients; diagnosis can be difficult with diarrhea absent in 20% of the subgroup. Once diagnosed, subtotal colectomy with ileostomy is usually required. In patients with a marked leukocytosis or bandemia, surgery is advisable because the leukocytosis frequently precedes hypotension and the requirement for vasopressor therapy, which carries a poor prognosis.

Analysis of 30-day mortality for clostridium difficile-associated disease in the ICU setting

OBJECTIVE

To examine the 30-day mortality rate among patients with Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) requiring intensive care.

DESIGN

A retrospective, single-center, observational, cohort study.

SETTING

Barnes-Jewish Hospital, a 1,200-bed, urban, teaching facility.

PATIENTS

Adult patients admitted to the ICU identified to have CDAD by enzyme immunoassay.

INTERVENTIONS

Retrospective data collection from automated hospital, microbiology, and pharmacy databases.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Two hundred seventy-eight patients with CDAD admitted to an ICU were identified over a 2-year period. Two hundred six patients (74.1%) received prior antibiotic therapy. The overall 30-day mortality rate was 36.7% (n = 102). Logistic regression analysis identified septic shock (adjusted odds ratio, 1.96; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.47 to 2.61; p = 0.018), ward-to-ICU transfer (adjusted odds ratio, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.62 to 2.79; p = 0.006), and increasing APACHE (acute physiology and chronic health evaluation) II scores (1-point increments) [adjusted odds ratio, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.07 to 1.12; p < 0.001] as independent predictors for 30-day mortality. The attributable mortality associated with CDAD was estimated to be 6.1% (95% CI, - 1.7 to 13.9%; p = 0.127). CDAD was associated with an excess ICU length of stay (2.2 days) and hospital length of stay (4.5 days).

CONCLUSIONS

We found a high 30-day crude mortality among patients with CDAD in the ICU setting. Although the attributable mortality from CDAD was relatively low, excess length of stay in the ICU and hospital was observed with CDAD. ICUs should routinely employ infection control efforts aimed at minimizing the occurrence of CDAD because of the excess morbidity associated with this nosocomial infection.

Antimicrobial therapy of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is the most common etiologically-defined cause of hospital-acquired diarrhea. Caused by the toxins of certain strains of C difficile, CDAD represents a growing concern, with epidemic outbreaks in some hospitals where very aggressive and difficult-to-treat strains have recently been found. Incidence of CDAD varies ordinarily between 1 to 10 in every 1,000 admissions. Evidence shows that CDAD increases morbidity, length of stay, and costs. This article described the clinical manifestations of CDAD, related risk factors, considerations for confirming CDAD, antimicrobial and non-antimicrobial treatment of CDAD, and issues related to relapses. The article concludes with a discussion of recent epidemic outbreaks involving CDAD.