The hepatic vagus mediates fat-induced inhibition of diabetic hyperphagia

Central nervous determination of food storage—a daily switch from conservation to expenditure: implications for the metabolic syndrome

Here, we present a neuroendocrine concept to review the circularly interacting energy homeostasis system between brain and body. Body-brain interaction is circular because the brain immediately integrates an input to an output, and because part of this response may be that the brain modulates the sensitivity of this perception. First, we describe how the brain senses the body through neurons and blood-borne factors. Direct neuronal connections report the state of various organs. In addition, humoral factors are perceived by the blood-brain barrier and circumventricular organs. We describe how circulating energy carriers are sensed and what signals reach the brain during food intake, exercise and an immune response. We describe that the brain regulates the homeostatic process at two fundamentally different levels during the active and inactive states. The unbalanced output of the brain in the metabolic syndrome is discussed in relation with such circadian rhythms and with regional activity of the autonomic nervous system. In line with the above, we suggest a new approach for the diagnosis and therapy of the metabolic syndrome.