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Wakshlag JJ, Stokol T, Geske SM, Greger CE, Angle CT, Gillette RL. Evaluation of exercise-induced changes in concentrations of C-reactive protein and serum biochemical values in sled dogs completing a long-distance endurance race. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71:1207-13. [PMID: 20919909 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.71.10.1207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether long-distance endurance exercise in sled dogs causes increases in serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) and whether such increases are correlated with other markers of the exercise-induced acute-phase response. ANIMALS 25 sled dogs. PROCEDURES Serum was obtained from 25 sled dogs approximately 48 hours before and immediately after completing a race of 557 km. Serum was analyzed to determine concentrations of CRP and interleukin (IL)-6, and serum biochemical analysis (and iron homeostasis analysis) also was performed. RESULTS CRP concentrations increased significantly from a mean±SD concentration of 22.4±16.3 microg/mL before racing to a mean of 263.3±103.8 microg/mL immediately after racing Serum IL-6 concentrations were unchanged; however, there was a modest but significant correlation (r=0.50) between the increase in CRP concentration and an overall decrease in serum albumin concentration, which suggested an inverse relationship between hepatic synthesis of the 2 proteins. Differences in CRP concentrations among teams of dogs revealed that concentrations before racing may be influenced by previous episodes of exercise. Serum iron concentration had only a mild decrease, which may have been attributable to iron-rich diets consumed by the dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CRP concentrations may serve as a potential marker for exercise-induced inflammation. The exact amount of exercise required to induce such a response is unknown, but dogs apparently have a more robust acute-phase response than do humans. Clinical evaluation of CRP concentrations must account for physical activity when those concentrations are used as a potential marker for systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Wakshlag
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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VIU J, JOSE-CUNILLERAS E, ARMENGOU L, CESARINI C, TARANCÓN I, RIOS J, MONREAL L. Acid-base imbalances during a 120 km endurance race compared by traditional and simplified strong ion difference methods. Equine Vet J 2010:76-82. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00213.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Wakshlag J, Kraus M, Gelzer A, Downey R, Vacchani P. The Influence of High-Intensity Moderate Duration Exercise on Cardiac Troponin I and C-Reactive Protein in Sled Dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2010; 24:1388-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0594.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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McKenzie E, Riehl J, Banse H, Kass PH, Nelson S, Marks SL. Prevalence of diarrhea and enteropathogens in racing sled dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2010; 24:97-103. [PMID: 19925573 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0418.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diarrhea is highly prevalent in racing sled dogs, although the underlying causes are poorly understood. HYPOTHESIS Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) and Clostridium difficile Toxin A and B are associated with diarrhea in racing sled dogs. ANIMALS One hundred and thirty-five sled dogs. METHODS Freshly voided feces were obtained from 55 dogs before racing and from 80 dogs after 400 miles of racing. Samples were visually scored for diarrhea, mucus, blood, and melena. CPE and C. difficile Toxin A and B were detected by ELISA. Samples were cultured for C. perfringens, C. difficile, Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli O157; Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected via immunofluorescence. RESULTS Diarrhea occurred in 36% of dogs during racing, and hematochezia, fecal mucus or melena, or all 3 occurred in 57.5% of dogs. Salmonella was isolated from 78.2% of dogs before racing, and from 71.3% of dogs during racing. C. perfringens and C. difficile were isolated from 100 and 58.2% of dogs before racing, and from 95 and 36.3% of dogs during racing. Dogs were more likely to test positive for CPE during than before racing (18.8 versus 5.5%, P = .021); however, no enteropathogens or their respective toxins were significantly associated with hematochezia or diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Sled dogs participating in long distance racing have a high prevalence of diarrhea and hematochezia that is not associated with common enteropathogens. It is possible that diarrhea and hematochezia represent the effect of prolonged exercise on the gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- E McKenzie
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, 227 Magruder Hall, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA.
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Datz CA. Noninfectious Causes of Immunosuppression in Dogs and Cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010; 40:459-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Nielsen L, Kjelgaard-Hansen M, Jensen AL, Kristensen AT. Breed-specific variation of hematologic and biochemical analytes in healthy adult Bernese Mountain dogs. Vet Clin Pathol 2010; 39:20-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-165x.2009.00186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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McKenzie E, Lupfer C, Banse H, Hinchcliff K, Love S, Nelson S, Davis M, Payton M, Pastey M. Hypogammaglobulinemia in racing Alaskan sled dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2009; 24:179-84. [PMID: 19925575 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0416.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serum immunoglobulin dynamics have not been studied in racing sled dogs, despite hypoglobulinemia having been reported during racing events. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES Hypoglobulinemia in racing sled dogs is associated with decreases in serum IgA, IgE, IgG, and IgM concentrations during prolonged exercise. ANIMALS One hundred and fifty-seven Alaskan sled dogs that successfully completed a 1,000 mile race. METHODS Serum was obtained from 118 sled dogs within 1 month before the race and within 12 hours after completing the race. Serum also was obtained after 4 months of rest from 51 dogs that successfully completed the race, including 12 previously sampled dogs. Serum total protein ([TP]), albumin, and globulin ([Gl]) were measured, and serum IgA, IgE, IgG, and IgM were quantified by ELISA. RESULTS The proportion of dogs with [Gl] < or = 2.2 g/dL was significantly greater immediately after racing (38 of 118 dogs, 32.2%) than before racing (21 of 118 dogs, 17.8%, P = .005). Four months after racing, [Gl] was < or = 2.2 g/dL in 23.5% (12 of 51) of dogs. [IgG] was significantly lower before (8.21 +/- 4.95 mg/mL) and immediately after (7.97 +/- 5.62) racing compared with 4 months after racing (18.88 +/- 5.76). Serum [IgM] and [IgE] were higher and [IgA] was lower before racing compared with immediately after racing. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Sled dogs participating in long-distance racing have substantial decreases in [IgG] in addition to decreases in [IgM] and [IgE]. The pronounced hypogammaglobulinemia observed in a large proportion of racing sled dogs might predispose them to infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E McKenzie
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Oregon State University, 227 Magruder Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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Brass EP, Peters MA, Hinchcliff KW, He YD, Ulrich RG. Temporal pattern of skeletal muscle gene expression following endurance exercise in Alaskan sled dogs. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 107:605-12. [PMID: 19498091 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91347.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle responses to exercise are complex and include acute responses to exercise-induced injury, as well as longer term adaptive training responses. Using Alaskan sled dogs as an experimental model, changes in muscle gene expression were analyzed to test the hypotheses that important regulatory elements of the muscle's adaptation to exercise could be identified based on the temporal pattern of gene expression. Dogs were randomly assigned to undertake a 160-km run (n=9), or to remain at rest (n=4). Biceps femoris muscle was obtained from the unexercised dogs and two dogs at each of 2, 6, and 12 h after the exercise, and from three dogs 24 h after exercise. RNA was extracted and microarray analysis used to define gene transcriptional changes. The changes in gene expression after exercise occurred in a temporal pattern. Overall, 569, 469, 316, and 223 transcripts were differentially expressed at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h postexercise, respectively, compared with unexercised dogs (based on P<or=0.01 and an absolute fold change of >or=1.5). Increases in a number of known transcriptional regulators, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha, cAMP-responsive element modulator, and CCAAT enhancer binding protein-delta, and potential signaling molecules, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor, dermokine, and suprabasin, were observed 2 h after exercise. Biological functional analysis suggested changes in expression of genes with known functional relationships, including genes involved in muscle remodeling and growth, intermediary metabolism, and immune regulation. Sustained endurance exercise by Alaskan sled dogs induces coordinated changes in gene expression with a clear temporal pattern. RNA expression profiling has the potential to identify novel regulatory mechanisms and responses to exercise stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric P Brass
- Department of Medicine, Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, 1124 W. Carson St., Torrance, CA 90502, USA.
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Thoresen SI, Arnemo JM, Liberg O. Hematology and serum clinical chemistry reference intervals for free-ranging Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus). Vet Clin Pathol 2009; 38:224-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-165x.2008.00105.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Angle CT, Wakshlag JJ, Gillette RL, Stokol T, Geske S, Adkins TO, Gregor C. Hematologic, serum biochemical, and cortisol changes associated with anticipation of exercise and short duration high-intensity exercise in sled dogs. Vet Clin Pathol 2009; 38:370-4. [PMID: 19351341 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-165x.2009.00122.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many studies have demonstrated changes in clinicopathologic variables in response to exercise in athletic dogs. These changes have been attributed to the duration and intensity of exercise. However, inconsistencies in the timing of collection of resting blood samples can be a confounding variable when interpreting results. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study were to determine whether hematologic and biochemical data in sled dogs are influenced by (1) anticipation of an exercise event or (2) short-duration high-intensity exercise. METHODS Blood samples were collected into EDTA tubes and tubes without anticoagulant from sled dogs at rest, immediately before a 3-mile run (preexercise), and immediately after the run (postexercise). A CBC, biochemical profile (including electrolytes, glucose, proteins, creatinine, urea, enzymes, cholesterol, and total bilirubin), and serum cortisol concentration were measured using standard methods on automated analyzers. RESULTS Significant increases in sodium, chloride, albumin, calcium, and cortisol concentration were observed in preexercise samples when compared with resting samples. Hyperglycemia and a further rise in serum cortisol concentration occurred immediately postexercise. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that anticipation of exercise affects several biochemical analytes, emphasizing the importance of appropriate timing of baseline blood samples. The pronounced hyperglycemia immediately after short-duration exercise may be a breed- or exercise-dependent phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig T Angle
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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Powers SK, Jackson MJ. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force production. Physiol Rev 2008; 88:1243-76. [PMID: 18923182 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00031.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1471] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The first suggestion that physical exercise results in free radical-mediated damage to tissues appeared in 1978, and the past three decades have resulted in a large growth of knowledge regarding exercise and oxidative stress. Although the sources of oxidant production during exercise continue to be debated, it is now well established that both resting and contracting skeletal muscles produce reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Importantly, intense and prolonged exercise can result in oxidative damage to both proteins and lipids in the contracting myocytes. Furthermore, oxidants can modulate a number of cell signaling pathways and regulate the expression of multiple genes in eukaryotic cells. This oxidant-mediated change in gene expression involves changes at transcriptional, mRNA stability, and signal transduction levels. Furthermore, numerous products associated with oxidant-modulated genes have been identified and include antioxidant enzymes, stress proteins, DNA repair proteins, and mitochondrial electron transport proteins. Interestingly, low and physiological levels of reactive oxygen species are required for normal force production in skeletal muscle, but high levels of reactive oxygen species promote contractile dysfunction resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue. Ongoing research continues to probe the mechanisms by which oxidants influence skeletal muscle contractile properties and to explore interventions capable of protecting muscle from oxidant-mediated dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott K Powers
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
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SCHARHAG JÜRGEN, GEORGE KEITH, SHAVE ROB, URHAUSEN AXEL, KINDERMANN WILFRIED. Exercise-Associated Increases in Cardiac Biomarkers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40:1408-15. [PMID: 18614952 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e318172cf22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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McKenzie EC, Hinchcliff KW, Valberg SJ, Williamson KK, Payton ME, Davis MS. Assessment of alterations in triglyceride and glycogen concentrations in muscle tissue of Alaskan sled dogs during repetitive prolonged exercise. Am J Vet Res 2008; 69:1097-103. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.69.8.1097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Banse HE, McKenzie EC, Nelson S, Hinchcliff KW. Assessment of serum antibody titers against canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus type II, and canine parvovirus in Alaskan sled dogs before and after a long-distance race. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008; 232:1669-73. [PMID: 18518808 DOI: 10.2460/javma.232.11.1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine serum antibody titers against canine distemper virus (CDV), canine adenovirus type II (CAV-2), and canine parvovirus (CPV) in trained sled dogs prior to and after completion of a long-distance race. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. ANIMALS 195 Alaskan sled dogs (from 18 kennels) that participated in the 2006 Iditarod Trail Race. PROCEDURES All 1,323 dogs participating in the race had been vaccinated against the 3 viruses at 19 to 286 days prior to initial blood sample collection (obtained within the month preceding the race). Within 12 hours of race completion, blood samples were collected from 195 dogs (convenience sample) and matched with each dog's prerace sample. Serum antibody titers (90% confidence intervals [CIs]) were determined via serum neutralization assays. RESULTS After racing, geometric mean titers against CDV and CPV were significantly higher (2,495 [90% CI, 321 to 16,384] and 6,323 [90% CI, 512 to 32,768], respectively) than prerace values (82 [90% CI, 11 to 362] and 166 [90% CI, 32 to 1,024], respectively). Sixty-one of 194 (31.4%) dogs had > or = 4-fold increases in anti-CPV antibody titers after racing. Prerace serum antibody titers against CDV, CPV, and CAV-2 varied significantly by sled team but were not associated with time since vaccination. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Postrace increases in serum anti-CDV and anti-CPV antibody titer might reflect exposure of dogs to these agents immediately before or during racing. Dogs had no clinical signs of CDV-, CAV-2-, or CPV-associated disease; therefore, the clinical importance of these titer changes is uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi E Banse
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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Davis MS, Davis WC, Ensign WY, Hinchcliff KW, Holbrook TC, Williamson KK. Effects of training and strenuous exercise on hematologic values and peripheral blood leukocyte subsets in racing sled dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008; 232:873-8. [PMID: 18341444 DOI: 10.2460/javma.232.6.873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of training and sustained submaximal exercise on hematologic values in racing sled dogs. DESIGN Cohort study. ANIMALS 39 Alaskan sled dogs bred for endurance racing. Procedures-Blood samples were collected prior to initiation of a 7-month training regimen (n=39), after completion of the training regimen (19), and after completion of an 1,100-mile race (9), and a CBC, differential cell count, and flow cytometry for leukocyte surface antigens were performed. RESULTS Both training and exercise caused significant decreases in PCV and hemoglobin concentration and significant increases in total WBC count. In contrast, training and exercise were not found to have significant effects on absolute numbers or fractions of CD4+ or CD8+ lymphocytes, other than a significant increase in the fraction of CD8+ lymphocytes associated with training. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that training and exercise induced changes in several hematologic values in racing sled dogs. Extracellular fluid volume expansion was the likely explanation for the training-induced decrease in PCV, and acute blood loss secondary to gastrointestinal tract bleeding was likely responsible for the decrease in PCV associated with acute exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Davis
- Comparative Exercise Physiology Laboratory, 264 McElroy Hall, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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O'Brien PJ. Cardiac troponin is the most effective translational safety biomarker for myocardial injury in cardiotoxicity. Toxicology 2007; 245:206-18. [PMID: 18249481 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2007] [Accepted: 12/07/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
There is an overwhelming weight of evidence that certifies cardiac troponin (cTn) as the preferred, defacto, translational, safety biomarker for myocardial injury in cardiotoxicity. As well as being the gold standard for cardiac injury in man, it has been widely used for clinical assessment and monitoring of cardiac toxicity in humans being treated for cancer. Furthermore, several dozen preclinical published studies have directly confirmed its effectiveness in laboratory animals for assessment of cardiotoxicity. It is gradually being reverse translated from human into animal use as a safety biomarker. Its use is especially merited whenever there is any safety signal indicating potential cardiotoxicity and its required inclusion as a routine biomarker in preclinical safety studies seems on the horizon. There are some considerations that are unique to use of cTn assays in animals. Lack of awareness of these has, historically, significantly inhibited the introduction of cTn as a safety biomarker in preclinical toxicology. Firstly, cross-species reactivity is usually but not always high. Secondly, there is a background of cardiac injury that needs to be controlled for, including spontaneous cardiomyopathy in Sprague Dawley rats, and inappropriate blood collection methods. Also, there are faster kinetics of clearance in rats than for humans. Also, coincident muscle injury is frequent with cardiotoxicity and requires a skeletal muscle biomarker. Because cTn assays were developed for detection of gross cardiac necrosis, such as occurs with myocardial infarct, the more sensitive assays should be used for preclinical studies. However, analytic sensitivity is higher for standard preclinical studies than for clinical diagnostic testing because of use of concurrent controls and use of batch analysis that eliminates interassay variability. No other biomarker of myocardial injury comes close to cTn in effectiveness, including CK-MB, LDH-1 and 2, myoglobin, and FABP3. In addition to the use of cTn for monitoring active myocardial degeneration, there is growing evidence that measurements of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) may be effective for monitoring drug-induced left ventricular dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter James O'Brien
- Room 013 Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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