Recent Advances in Graphene Based TiO2 Nanocomposites (GTiO2Ns) for Photocatalytic Degradation of Synthetic Dyes

Nanomaterials for Environmental Purification and Energy Conversion

Nanomaterials, engineered structures of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 to 100 nm, are probably the fastest growing market in the world [...]

Graphene modified anatase/titanate nanosheets with enhanced photocatalytic activity for efficient degradation of sulfamethazine under simulated solar light

Graphene modified anatase/titanate nanosheets (G/A/TNS) synthesized through hydrothermal treatment were used for solar-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of a typical pharmaceutically active compound, sulfamethazine (SMT). The optimal material was synthesized with 0.5 wt% of graphene loading (G/A/TNS-0.5), which could efficiently degrade 96.1% of SMT at 4 h. G/A/TNS-0.5 showed enhanced photocatalytic activity compared with the neat anatase and unmodified anatase/titanate nanosheets (A/TNS). UV-vis diffuse reflection spectra indicated that G/A/TNS-0.5 had a lower energy band gap (E_g) of 2.8 eV than A/TNS (3.1 eV). The grafted graphene acted as an electron transfer mediator after photoexcitation, resulting in inhibition on rapid recombination of electron-hole pairs. More importantly, architecture of graphene and titanate nanosheets both with two-dimensional structures greatly facilitated the photoexcited electron transfer. •OH and ¹O₂ were the primary reactive oxygen species (ROS) to SMT degradation. Fukui index (f^-) derived from density functional theory (DFT) calculation predicted the active sites on SMT molecule, and then SMT degradation pathway was proposed by means of intermediates identification and theoretical calculation. Furthermore, G/A/TNS-0.5 could be well reused and 90.5% of SMT was also degraded after five runs. The developed new photocatalysts show great potential for degradation of emerging organic contaminants through photocatalysis under solar light.

Advanced Photocatalysts Based on Reduced Nanographene Oxide-TiO2 Photonic Crystal Films

Surface functionalization of TiO₂ inverse opals by graphene oxide nanocolloids (nanoGO) presents a promising modification for the development of advanced photocatalysts that combine slow photon-assisted light harvesting, surface area, and mass transport of macroporous photonic structures with the enhanced adsorption capability, surface reactivity, and charge separation of GO nanosheets. In this work, post-thermal reduction of nanoGO–TiO₂ inverse opals was investigated in order to explore the role of interfacial electron transfer vs. pollutant adsorption and improve their photocatalytic activity. Photonic band gap-engineered TiO₂ inverse opals were fabricated by the coassembly technique and were functionalized by GO nanosheets and reduced under He at 200 and 500 °C. Comparative performance evaluation of the nanoGO–TiO₂ films on methylene blue photodegradation under UV-VIS and visible light showed that thermal reduction at 200 °C, in synergy with slow photon effects, improved the photocatalytic reaction rate despite the loss of nanoGO and oxygen functional groups, pointing to enhanced charge separation. This was further supported by photoluminescence spectroscopy and salicylic acid UV-VIS photodegradation, where, in the absence of photonic effects, the photocatalytic activity increased, confirming that fine-tuning of interfacial coupling between TiO₂ and reduced nanoGO is a key factor for the development of highly efficient photocatalytic films.

Efficient photocatalytic methylene blue degradation by Fe3O4@TiO2 core/shell linked to graphene by aminopropyltrimethoxysilane

In the present article, Fe₃O₄@TiO₂ core/shell (FT) linked to graphene was fabricated by sol-gel technique as a photocatalyst and was employed for the solar degradation of cationic methylene blue (MB) in aqueous solution. The prepared core/shells were linked to graphene oxide (FTGO) and reduced graphene oxide (FTRGO) via embedding into 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APS). The structure of this magnetic composition was characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and BET surface area measurements. The significance of the composite structure in photocatalytic degradation was spectrophotometrically tested by blending the obtained powders with wastewater containing methylene blue under solar irradiation. The appropriate dosage of APS to link the Fe₃O₄@TiO₂ core/shell onto GO and RGO surfaces was determined to be 1 ml per gram of FT. The kinetic studies were performed to investigate the effects of different parameters, such as composition structure, APS dosage, and repeatability. Kinetic data are well fitted by a first-order model with a high correlation coefficient. Regardless of the prominent advantage of composites in magnetic powder separation, the Fe₃O₄@TiO₂ core/shell linked to graphene oxide is an efficient composite in comparison to FTRGO for the dye degradation without losing the original activity and stability.

Phenol Abatement by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysts: Effect of The Graphene Oxide Loading

Hetero-photocatalytic graphene-TiO2 materials have, in the literature, been found to possess better photocatalytic activity for environmental applications compared to pure TiO2. These types of materials can be prepared in different ways; however, their photocatalytic performance and quality are not easily controlled and reproduced. Therefore, we synthetized graphene oxide-TiO2 nanoparticles by sol-gel reaction from TiCl4, as precursor, with two different methods of synthesis and with a graphene oxide (GO) loading ranging from 0 to 1.0. This approach led to a good adhesion of GO to TiO2 through the Ti-O-C bonding, which could enhance the photocatalytic performances of the materials. Overall, 0.05 wt % GO loading gave the highest rate in the photodegradation of phenol under visible light, while higher GO loadings had a negative impact on the photocatalytic performances of the composites. The 0.05 wt % GO-TiO2 composite material was confirmed to be a promising photocatalyst for water pollutant abatement. The designed synthetic approach could easily be implemented in large-scale production of the GO-TiO2 coupling materials.

Soluble Graphene Nanosheets for the Sunlight-Induced Photodegradation of the Mixture of Dyes and its Environmental Assessment

Currently, the air and water pollutions are presenting the most serious global concerns. Despite the well known tremendous efforts, it could be a promising sustainability if the black carbon (BC) soot can be utilized for the practical and sustainable applications. For this, the almost complete aqueous phase photodegradation of the three well-known organic pollutant dyes as crystal violet (CV); rhodamine B (RhB); methylene blue (MB) and their mixture (CV + RhB + MB), by using water-soluble graphene nanosheets (wsGNS) isolated from the BC soot under the influence of natural sunlight is described. The plausible mechanism behind the photocatalytic degradation of dyes and their mixture has been critically analyzed via the trapping of active species and structural analysis of photodegraded products. The impact of diverse interfering ions like Ca2+, Fe3+, SO42-, HPO42-, NO3-, and Cl- on the photodegradation efficiency of wsGNS was also investigated. Importantly, the environmental assessment of the whole process has been evaluated towards the growth of wheat plants using the treated wastewater. The initial studies for the fifteen days confirmed that growth of wheat plants was almost the same in the photodegraded wastewater as being noticed in the control sample, while in case of dyes contaminated water it showed the retarded growth. Using the natural sunlight, the overall sustainability of the presented work holds the potential for the utilization of pollutant soot in real-practical applications related to the wastewater remediation and further the practical uses of treated water.

Graphitic Carbon Nitride and Titanium Dioxide Modified with 1 D and 2 D Carbon Structures for Photocatalysis

Enhancing the photocatalytic performance of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃ N₄ , GCN) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂ ) has played a key role in the energy and environmental protection research community. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the synergy of both materials with carbon nanostructures for photocatalysis. Among the variety of carbon materials, graphene flakes and nanotubes, as nanoadditives to improve electron charge transfer and the optical absorption behavior in the visible-light region, have been widely explored. Thus, flake-like (2 D) and tubular (1 D) carbon structures in composition with GCN and/or TiO₂ are reviewed, as are their photocatalytic response. Current trends clearly indicate that this type of molecular hybrids can be efficiently exploited in this field. This Minireview covers state-of-the-art research over the period of 2015 to 2018.

The Role of Surface Texture on the Photocatalytic H2 Production on TiO2

It has been often reported that an efficient and green photocatalytic dissociation of water under irradiated semiconductors likely represents the most important goal for modern chemistry. Despite decades of intensive work on this topic, the efficiency of the water photolytic process under irradiated semiconductors is far from reaching significant photocatalytic efficiency. The use of a sacrificial agent as hole scavenger dramatically increases the hydrogen production rate and might represent the classic “kill two birds with one stone”: on the one hand, the production of hydrogen, then usable as energy carrier, on the other, the treatment of water for the abatement of pollutants used as sacrificial agents. Among metal oxides, TiO2 has a central role due to its versatility and inexpensiveness that allows an extended applicability in several scientific and technological fields. In this review we focus on the hydrogen production on irradiated TiO2 and its fundamental and environmental implications.

Recent Development of Photocatalysts Containing Carbon Species: A Review

Undoubtedly, carbon-based (nano)composites can be promising photocatalysts with improved photocatalytic activity due to the coupling effect from the incorporation of carbon species. In this mini-review, we focus on the recent development of photocatalysts based on carbon-based (nano)composites. TiO2 is well-known as a typical photocatalyst. Special attention is paid to the various types of carbon–TiO2 composites such as C-doped TiO2, N–C-doped TiO2, metal–C-doped TiO2, and other co-doped C/TiO2 composites. Various synthetic strategies including the solvothermal/hydrothermal method, sol–gel method, and template-directed method are reviewed for the preparation of carbon-based TiO2 composites. C/graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) composites and ternary C-doped composites are also summarized and ascribed to the unique electronic structure of g-C3N4 and the synergistic effect of the ternary interfaces, respectively. In the end, we put forward the future perspective of the photocatalysts containing carbon species based on our knowledge.

Molecular-Level Understanding of Selectively Photocatalytic Degradation of Ammonia via Copper Ferrite/N-Doped Graphene Catalyst under Visible Near-Infrared Irradiation

Developing photocatalysts with molecular recognition function is very interesting and desired for specific applications in the environmental field. Copper ferrite/N-doped graphene (CuFe2O4/NG) hybrid catalyst was synthesized and characterized by surface photovoltage spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, UV–Vis near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The CuFe2O4/NG catalyst can recognize ammonia from rhodamine B (RhB) in ammonia-RhB mixed solution and selectively degrade ammonia under visible near-infrared irradiation. The degradation ratio for ammonia reached 92.6% at 6 h while the degradation ratio for RhB was only 39.3% in a mixed solution containing 100.0 mg/L NH3-N and 50 mg/L RhB. Raman spectra and X-ray photoelectron spectra indicated ammonia adsorbed on CuFe2O4 while RhB was adsorbed on NG. The products of oxidized ammonia were detected by gas chromatography, and results showed that N2 was formed during photocatalytic oxidization. Mechanism studies showed that photo-generated electrons flow to N-doped graphene following the Z-scheme configuration to reduce O2 dissolved in solution, while photo-generated holes oxidize directly ammonia to nitrogen gas.

A Ti-doped γ-Fe2O3/SDS nano-photocatalyst as an efficient adsorbent for removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions

Synthetic dyes are among the most important environmental pollutants in wastewaters. Consequently, elimination of the synthetic dyes from wastewaters using non-toxic materials and eco-friendly technologies has been of considerable interests. In this study, magnetically separable Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ photocatalysts were synthesized for the removal of methylene blue (MB) from a dye-contaminated aqueous solution (as a model of dye-polluted wastewaters). Compared to the pristine γ-Fe₂O₃, the 1.78 v% Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ significantly increased the adsorption of MB by 57% in the dark condition as a result of the improved BET surface area in this photocatalyst. Moreover, the contact time required for the photocatalytic degradation of MB by the 1.78 v% Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ decreased due to the higher concentration of charge carriers in this photocatalyst than that of the pristine γ-Fe₂O₃. The effect of different experimental parameters on the adsorption property and photocatalytic activity of the 1.78 v% Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ photocatalyst showed that the solution pH had a remarkable influence on the removal performance of this photocatalyst. Surface treatment of the 1.78 v% Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) resulted in the formation of a negatively charged Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃/SDS photocatalyst, which showed a higher tendency for the adsorption and removal of MB than the untreated photocatalyst. Moreover, the MB removal efficiency of this photocatalyst was among the best performances that have been reported for the γ-Fe₂O₃-based photocatalysts. The synthesized photocatalysts were characterized by various techniques, and a plausible mechanism for the removal of MB from aqueous solutions by the Ti-doped γ-Fe₂O₃/SDS photocatalyst was purposed.

Enhanced catalytic performance of reduced graphene oxide-TiO2 hybrids for efficient water treatment using microwave irradiation

Towards achieving efficient waste water treatment, the degradation of a common water pollutant, Orange G azo dye, was studied using a new hybrid catalyst and microwave irradiation. The fabrication of a hybrid catalyst based on reduced graphene oxide-titania (rGO-TiO2), was first achieved in a single mode microwave cavity by reducing the precursor consisting of graphene oxide (GO) and titania. Catalytic performance was then assessed in both microwave assisted and conventional heat treatment conditions. The hybrid catalyst showed significant improvement under microwave irradiation, with more than 88% dye degradation after 20 minutes of treatment at 120 °C. The microwave effect was found to be more dominant in the early stages of the catalysis - the hybrid catalyst decomposed ∼65% of the dye in just 5 minutes of microwave treatment compared to only 18% degradation obtained during conventional heating. The improved performance with microwaves is mainly attributed to the formation of the hot spots at the surface of the hybrid catalyst which ultimately results in higher degradation rates. The morphological and catalytic properties of the hybrid catalyst are investigated using High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) and UV-Vis Spectroscopy, respectively. Successful reduction of GO to rGO was confirmed using Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The outstanding performance of microwave irradiated hybrids offers a viable low energy, low carbon footprint process with a new catalyst for wastewater treatment and for highly polluted wastewater conditions where photocatalysis is deemed not feasible.