Five misconceptions in cancer diagnosis. Br J Gen Pract. 2009;59:441-445, 447; discussion 446. [PMID: 19520027 DOI: 10.3399/bjgp09x420860]

Patients with cancer and change of general practice: a Danish population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

General practice plays an important role in the cancer care pathway. Patient dissatisfaction with the diagnostic process may be expressed by changing to another general practice.

AIM

To compare the frequency of change of practice (COP) in patients with cancer (n = 150 216) with a matched cancer-free control cohort (n = 1 502 114) and to analyse associations with cancer type and patient characteristics.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A population-based matched cohort study using historical and prospectively collected data from Danish nationwide registers.

METHOD

COP was defined as a change of practice list, unrelated to change of address or reorganisation of the practice. Data were analysed monthly in the year before and after a cancer diagnosis.

RESULTS

More patients with cancer than controls changed general practice (4.1% versus 2.6%) from 7 months before and until 12 months after diagnosis. The COP rate varied by cancer type (rectal cancer served as reference). Before the diagnosis, COP was most often seen among patients with ovarian cancer (risk ratio [RR] 1.51, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.10 to 2.08) and multiple myeloma (RR 1.89, 95% CI = 1.34 to 2.67). After the diagnosis, COP was most frequent among patients with brain cancer (RR 1.38, 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.82) and ovarian cancer (RR 1.51, 95% CI = 1.21 to 1.88).

CONCLUSION

Patients with cancer changed general practice more frequently than the cancer-free controls. COP variations between cancer types may be attributed to lack of diagnostic timeliness due to clinical complexity of the diagnosis and the role of the GP in the diagnostic process.

Colorectal cancer diagnosis: Pitfalls and opportunities

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major health problem in the Western world. The diagnostic process is a challenge in all health systems for many reasons: There are often no specific symptoms; lower abdominal symptoms are very common and mostly related to non-neoplastic diseases, not CRC; diagnosis of CRC is mainly based on colonoscopy, an invasive procedure; and the resource for diagnosis is usually scarce. Furthermore, the available predictive models for CRC are based on the evaluation of symptoms, and their diagnostic accuracy is limited. Moreover, diagnosis is a complex process involving a sequence of events related to the patient, the initial consulting physician and the health system. Understanding this process is the first step in identifying avoidable factors and reducing the effects of diagnostic delay on the prognosis of CRC. In this article, we describe the predictive value of symptoms for CRC detection. We summarize the available evidence concerning the diagnostic process, as well as the factors implicated in its delay and the methods proposed to reduce it. We describe the different prioritization criteria and predictive models for CRC detection, specifically addressing the two-week wait referral guideline from the National Institute of Clinical Excellence in terms of efficacy, efficiency and diagnostic accuracy. Finally, we collected information on the usefulness of biomarkers, specifically the faecal immunochemical test, as non-invasive diagnostic tests for CRC detection in symptomatic patients.

The effect of direct access to CT scan in early lung cancer detection: an unblinded, cluster-randomised trial

Background

Lower lung cancer survival rates in Britain and Denmark compared with surrounding countries may, in part, be due to late diagnosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of direct access to low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) from general practice in early lung cancer detection on time to diagnosis and stage at diagnosis.

Methods

We conducted a cluster-randomised, controlled trial including all incident lung cancer patients (in 19-month period) listed with general practice in the municipality of Aarhus (300,000 citizens), Denmark. Randomisation and intervention were applied at general practice level. A total of 266 GPs from 119 general practices. In the study period, 331 lung cancer patients were included. The intervention included direct access to low-dose CT from primary care combined with a 1 h lung cancer update meeting. Indication for LDCT was symptoms or signs that raised the GP’s suspicion of lung cancer, but fell short of satisfying the fast-track referral criteria on red flag’ symptoms.

Results

The intervention did not significantly influence stage at diagnosis and had limited impact on time to diagnosis. However, when correcting for non-compliance, we found that the patients were at higher risk of experiencing a long diagnostic interval if their GPs were in the control group.

Conclusion

Direct low-dose CT from primary care did not statistically significantly decrease time to diagnosis or change stage at diagnosis in lung cancer patients. Case finding with direct access to LDCT may be an alternative to lung cancer screening. Furthermore, a recommendation of low-dose CT screening should consider offering symptomatic, unscreened patients an access to CT directly from primary care.

Trial registration

www.clinicaltrials.gov, registration ID number NCT01527214.

Use of the English urgent referral pathway for suspected cancer and mortality in patients with cancer: cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the overall effect of the English urgent referral pathway on cancer survival.

SETTING

8049 general practices in England.

DESIGN

Cohort study. Linked information from the national Cancer Waiting Times database, NHS Exeter database, and National Cancer Register was used to estimate mortality in patients in relation to the propensity of their general practice to use the urgent referral pathway.

PARTICIPANTS

215,284 patients with cancer, diagnosed or first treated in England in 2009 and followed up to 2013.

OUTCOME MEASURE

Hazard ratios for death from any cause, as estimated from a Cox proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

During four years of follow-up, 91,620 deaths occurred, of which 51,606 (56%) occurred within the first year after diagnosis. Two measures of the propensity to use urgent referral, the standardised referral ratio and the detection rate, were associated with reduced mortality. The hazard ratio for the combination of high referral ratio and high detection rate was 0.96 (95% confidence interval 0.94 to 0.99), applying to 16% (n=34,758) of the study population. Patients with cancer who were registered with general practices with the lowest use of urgent referral had an excess mortality (hazard ratio 1.07 (95% confidence interval 1.05 to 1.08); 37% (n=79,416) of the study population). The comparator group for these two hazard ratios was the remaining 47% (n=101,110) of the study population. This result in mortality was consistent for different types of cancer (apart from breast cancer) and with other stratifications of the dataset, and was not sensitive to adjustment for potential confounders and other details of the statistical model.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of the urgent referral pathway could be efficacious. General practices that consistently have a low propensity to use urgent referrals could consider increasing the use of this pathway to improve the survival of their patients with cancer.

Predictive values of GPs' suspicion of serious disease: a population-based follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Knowledge is sparse on the prevalence of suspicion of cancer and other serious diseases in general practice. Likewise, little is known about the possible implications of this suspicion on future healthcare use and diagnoses.

AIM

To study the prevalence of GPs' suspicions of cancer or other serious diseases and analyse how this suspicion predicted the patients' healthcare use and diagnoses of serious disease.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Prospective population-based cohort study of 4518 patients consulting 404 GPs in a mix of urban, semi-urban and rural practices in Central Denmark Region during 2008-2009.

METHOD

The GPs registered consultations in 1 work day, including information on their suspicion of the presence of cancer or another serious disease. The patients were followed up for use of healthcare services and new diagnoses through the use of national registers.

RESULTS

Prevalence of suspicion was 5.7%. Suspicion was associated with an increase in referrals (prevalence ratio [PR] = 2.56, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.22 to 2.96), especially for diagnostic imaging (PR = 3.95, 95% CI = 2.80 to 5.57), increased risk of a new diagnosis of cancer or another serious disease within 2 months (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.98, 95% CI = 1.93 to 4.62)--especially for cancer (HR = 7.55, 95% CI = 2.66 to 21.39)--and increased use of general practice (relative risk [RR] = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.06 to 1.24) and hospital visits (RR = 1.90, 95% CI = 1.62 to 2.23). The positive predictive value of a GP suspicion was 9.8% (95% CI = 6.4 to 14.1) for cancer or another serious disease within 2 months.

CONCLUSION

A GP suspicion of serious disease warrants further investigation, and the organisation of the healthcare system should ensure direct access from the primary sector to specialised tests.

The Danish cancer pathway for patients with serious non-specific symptoms and signs of cancer-a cross-sectional study of patient characteristics and cancer probability

BACKGROUND

A Danish cancer pathway has been implemented for patients with serious non-specific symptoms and signs of cancer (NSSC-CPP). The initiative is one of several to improve the long diagnostic interval and the poor survival of Danish cancer patients. However, little is known about the patients investigated under this pathway. We aim to describe the characteristics of patients referred from general practice to the NSSC-CPP and to estimate the cancer probability and distribution in this population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was performed, including all patients referred to the NSSC-CPP at the hospitals in Aarhus or Silkeborg in the Central Denmark Region between March 2012 and March 2013. Data were based on a questionnaire completed by the patient's general practitioner (GP) combined with nationwide registers. Cancer probability was the percentage of new cancers per investigated patient. Associations between patient characteristics and cancer diagnosis were estimated with prevalence rate ratios (PRRs) from a generalised linear model.

RESULTS

The mean age of all 1278 included patients was 65.9 years, and 47.5 % were men. In total, 16.2 % of all patients had a cancer diagnosis after six months; the most common types were lung cancer (17.9 %), colorectal cancer (12.6 %), hematopoietic tissue cancer (10.1 %) and pancreatic cancer (9.2 %). All patients in combination had more than 80 different symptoms and 51 different clinical findings at referral. Most symptoms were non-specific and vague; weight loss and fatigue were present in more than half of all cases. The three most common clinical findings were 'affected general condition' (35.8 %), 'GP's gut feeling' (22.5 %) and 'findings from the abdomen' (13.0 %). A strong association was found between GP-estimated cancer risk at referral and probability of cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

In total, 16.2 % of the patients referred through the NSSC-CPP had cancer. They constituted a heterogeneous group with many different symptoms and clinical findings. The GP's gut feeling was a common reason for referral which proved to be a strong predictor of cancer. The GP's overall estimation of the patient's risk of cancer at referral was associated with the probability of finding cancer.

The role of emotions in time to presentation for symptoms suggestive of cancer: a systematic literature review of quantitative studies

BACKGROUND

Emotions may be important in patients' decisions to seek medical help for symptoms suggestive of cancer.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this systematic literature review was to examine quantitative literature on the influence of emotion on patients' help-seeking for symptoms suggestive of cancer. The objectives were to identify the following: (a) which types of emotions influence help-seeking behaviour, (b) whether these form a barrier or trigger for seeking medical help and (c) how the role of emotions varies between different cancers and populations.

METHODS

We searched four electronic databases and conducted a narrative synthesis. Inclusion criteria were studies that reported primary, quantitative research that examined any emotion specific to symptom appraisal or help-seeking for symptoms suggestive of cancer.

RESULTS

Thirty-three papers were included. The studies were heterogeneous in their methods and quality, and very few had emotion as the main focus of the research. Studies reported a limited range of emotions, mainly related to fear and worry. The impact of emotions appears mixed, sometimes acting as a barrier to consultation whilst at other times being a trigger or being unrelated to time to presentation. It is plausible that different emotions play different roles at different times prior to presentation.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review provides some quantitative evidence for the role of emotions in help-seeking behaviour. However, it also highlighted widespread methodological, definition and design issues among the existing literature. The conflicting results around the role of emotions on time to presentation may be due to the lack of definition of each specific emotion.

Quality deviations in cancer diagnosis: prevalence and time to diagnosis in general practice

BACKGROUND

High quality in every phase of cancer diagnosis is important to optimise the prognosis for the patient. General practice plays an important role in this phase.

AIM

The aim was to describe the prevalence and the types of quality deviations (QDs) that arise during the diagnostic pathway in general practice as assessed by GPs and to analyse the association between these QDs, the cancer type, and the GP's interpretation of presenting symptoms as well as the influence on the diagnostic interval.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A Danish retrospective cohort study based on questionnaire data from 1466 GPs on 5711 incident patients with cancer identified in the Danish National Patient Registry (response rate = 71.4%). The GP was involved in diagnosing in 4036 cases.

METHOD

Predefined QDs were prompted with the possibility for free text. QD prevalence was estimated as was the association between QDs and diagnosis, the GP's symptom interpretation, and time to diagnosis.

RESULTS

QDs were present for 30.4% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 29.0 to 31.9) of cancer patients. The most prevalent QD was 'retrospectively, one or more of my clinical decisions were less optimal'. QDs were most prevalent among patients with vague symptoms (24.1% for alarm symptoms versus 39.5% for vague symptoms [P<0.001]). QD presence implied a 41-day (95% CI = 38.4 to 43.6) longer median diagnostic interval.

CONCLUSION

GPs noted at least one QD, which often involved clinical decisions, for one-third of all cancer patients. QDs were more likely among patients with vague symptoms and increased the diagnostic interval considerably.

A differentiated approach to referrals from general practice to support early cancer diagnosis - the Danish three-legged strategy

When aiming to provide more expedited cancer diagnosis and treatment of cancer at an earlier stage, it is important to take into account the symptom epidemiology throughout the pathway, from first bodily sensation until the start of cancer treatment. This has implications for how primary-care providers interpret the presentation and decisions around patient management and investigation. Symptom epidemiology has consequences for how the health-care system might best be organised. This paper argues for and describes the organisation of the Danish three-legged strategy in diagnosing cancer, which includes urgent referral pathways for symptoms suspicious of a specific cancer, urgent referral to diagnostic centres when we need quick and profound evaluation of patients with nonspecific, serious symptoms and finally easy and fast access to ‘No-Yes-Clinics' for cancer investigations for those patients with common symptoms in whom the diagnosis of cancer should not be missed. The organisation of the health-care system must reflect the reality of symptoms presented in primary care. The organisational change is evaluated and monitored with a comprehensive research agenda, data infrastructure and education.

Ethnic differences in patients' preferences for prostate cancer investigation: a vignette-based survey in primary care

BACKGROUND

Minority ethnic groups in the UK have worse outcomes for some cancer types compared with the white majority. Black males have worse staging at diagnosis of prostate cancer and often present as emergencies, suggesting possible delays in the diagnostic pathway. Delay may arise from lower awareness of cancer symptoms, reluctance to report symptoms, reduced desire for investigation, or a combination of these. Reduced desire for investigation was examined in this study

AIM

To investigate whether black males in the UK would choose to be tested for prostate cancer compared with the white majority.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A vignette (hypothetical scenario)-based, electronic survey of male patients aged ≥40 years from four general practices in Bristol, UK.

METHOD

The vignettes described possible prostate cancer symptoms (equating to risk levels of 2%, 5%, and 10%), investigative procedures, and possible outcomes. Participants indicated whether they would choose investigation in these scenarios. Analysis used logistic regression, with preference for investigation as the outcome variable and ethnicity as the main explanatory variable.

RESULTS

In total, 449 (81%) of 555 participants opted for investigation, regardless of risk levels; of these, the acceptance rate was 94% (251 out of 267) among white males and 70% (198 out of 285) among black males. In multivariable analyses, preference for investigation was lower in black males, even after controlling for relevant confounding factors including specific risk level (odds ratio 0.13; 95% confidence interval = 0.07 to 0.25; P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Black males are less likely to opt for investigation at any risk level of prostate cancer compared with white males. This may explain some of their late-stage presentation at diagnosis and subsequent poorer outcomes.

Alarm symptoms of soft-tissue and bone sarcoma in patients referred to a specialist center

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The Danish Cancer Patient Pathway for sarcoma defines a set of alarm symptoms as criteria for referral to a sarcoma center. This may exclude cancer patients without alarm symptoms, so we investigated the presence of alarm symptoms (defined as being indicative of a sarcoma) in patients who had been referred to the Aarhus Sarcoma Center.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of all 1,126 patients who had been referred, with suspected sarcoma, from other hospitals in the period 2007-2010 for information on symptoms, clinical findings, and diagnosis. Alarm symptoms were analyzed for predictive values in diagnosing sarcoma.

RESULTS

179 (69%) of 258 sarcoma patients were referred with alarm symptoms (soft-tissue tumor>5 cm or deep-seated, fast-growing soft-tissue tumor, palpable bone tumor, or deep persisting bone pain). The remaining 79 sarcomas were found accidentally. "Size over 5 cm" for soft-tissue tumors, and "deep persisting bone pain" for bone tumors had the highest sensitivity and positive predictive value. Of the 79 sarcoma patients who were referred without alarm symptoms, 7 were found accidentally on imaging, 5 were referred with suspected recurrence of a sarcoma, 64 were referred with a confirmed histological diagnosis, and 3 were referred for other reasons.

INTERPRETATION

Defined alarm symptoms are predictive of sarcoma, but one-third of the patients were found accidentally. Further studies on presenting symptoms in primary care are needed to assess the true value of alarm symptoms.

A geographical cluster randomised stepped wedge study of continuing medical education and cancer diagnosis in general practice

Background

Denmark has inferior cancer survival rates compared with many European countries. The main reason for this is suggested to be late diagnosis at advanced cancer stages. Cancer diagnostic work-up begins in general practice in 85% of all cancer cases. Thus, general practitioners (GPs) play a key role in the diagnostic process. The latest Danish Cancer Plan included continuing medical education (CME) on early cancer diagnosis in general practice to improve early diagnosis. This dual aims of this protocol are, first, to describe the conceptualisation, operationalisation and implementation of the CME and, second, to describe the study design and outcomes chosen to evaluate the effects of the CME.

Methods/Design

The intervention is a CME in early cancer diagnosis targeting individual GPs. It was developed by a step-wise approach. Barriers for early cancer diagnosis at GP level were identified systematically and analysed using the behaviour system involving capability, opportunity and motivation described by Michie et al. The study will be designed as a geographical cluster randomised stepped wedge study. The study population counts 836 GPs from 417 general practices in the Central Denmark Region, geographically divided into eight clusters. GPs from each cluster will be invited to a CME meeting at a certain date three weeks apart. The primary outcomes will be primary care interval and GP referral rate on cancer suspicion. Data will be obtained from national registries, GP-completed forms on patients referred to cancer fast-track pathways and GP-completed online questionnaires before and after the intervention.

Discussion

To our knowledge, this will be the first study to measure the effect of a theory-based CME in early cancer diagnosis at three levels: GP knowledge and attitude, GP activity and patient outcomes. The achieved knowledge will contribute to the understanding of whether and how general practice’s ability to perform cancer diagnosis may be improved.

Trial registration

Registered as NCT02069470 on ClinicalTrials.gov.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13012-014-0159-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Creation of a diagnostic wait times measurement framework based on evidence and consensus

PURPOSE

Public reporting of wait times worldwide has to date focused largely on treatment wait times and is limited in its ability to capture earlier parts of the patient journey. The interval between suspicion and diagnosis or ruling out of cancer is a complex phase of the cancer journey. Diagnostic delays and inefficient use of diagnostic imaging procedures can result in poor patient outcomes, both physical and psychosocial. This study was designed to develop a framework that could be adopted for multiple disease sites across different jurisdictions to enable the measurement of diagnostic wait times and diagnostic delay.

METHODS

Diagnostic benchmarks and targets in cancer systems were explored through a targeted literature review and jurisdictional scan. Cancer system leaders and clinicians were interviewed to validate the information found in the jurisdictional scan. An expert panel was assembled to review and, through a modified Delphi consensus process, provide feedback on a diagnostic wait times framework.

RESULTS

The consensus process resulted in agreement on a measurement framework that identified suspicion, referral, diagnosis, and treatment as the main time points for measuring this critical phase of the patient journey.

CONCLUSIONS

This work will help guide initiatives designed to improve patient access to health services by developing an evidence-based approach to standardization of the various waypoints during the diagnostic pathway. The diagnostic wait times measurement framework provides a yardstick to measure the performance of programs that are designed to manage and expedite care processes between referral and diagnosis or ruling out of cancer.

The importance of contextualization. Anthropological reflections on descriptive analysis, its limitations and implications

This paper regards a concern for the quality of analyses made on the basis of qualitative interviews in some parts of qualitative health research. Starting with discussions departing in discussions on studies exploring 'patient delay' in healthcare seeking, it is argued that an implicit and simplified notion of causality impedes reflexivity on social context, on the nature of verbal statements and on the situatedness of the interview encounter. Further, the authors suggest that in order to improve the quality of descriptive analyses, it is pertinent to discuss the relationship between notions of causality and the need for contextualization in particular. This argument targets several disciplines taking a qualitative approach, including medical anthropology. In particular, researchers working in interdisciplinary fields face the demands of producing knowledge ready to implement, and such demands challenge basic notions of causality and explanatory power. In order to meet these, the authors suggest an analytic focus on process causality linked to contextualization.

Variation in gastroscopy rate in English general practice and outcome for oesophagogastric cancer: retrospective analysis of Hospital Episode Statistics

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether variation in gastroscopy rates in English general practice populations is associated with inequality in oesophagogastric (OG) cancer outcome.

DESIGN

Retrospective observational study of the Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) dataset for England (2006-2008) linked to death registration.

METHODS

were validated using independent local and national data. General practices with new cases of OG cancer were included. Practices were grouped into tertiles according to standardised elective gastroscopy rate per capita (low, medium or high). Outcome measures for cancer cases were: emergency admission during diagnostic pathway, major surgical resection and mortality at 1 year. Covariates were: age group, gender, comorbidity, general practice average deprivation and patient deprivation.

RESULTS

22 488 incident cases of OG cancer from 6513 general practices were identified. Patients registered with the low tertile group of practices had the lowest rate of major surgery, highest rate of emergency admission and highest mortality. The inequality was widest for the most socioeconomically deprived cases. After adjustment for covariates in logistic regression, the gastroscopy rate (low, medium or high) at the patient's general practice was an independent predictor of emergency admission, major surgery and mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

There is wide variation in the rate of gastroscopy among general practice populations in England. On average, OG cancer patients belonging to practices with the lowest rates of gastroscopy are at greater risk of poor outcome. These findings suggest that initiatives or current guidelines aimed at limiting the use of gastroscopy may adversely affect cancer outcomes.

Patient-reported measurement of time to diagnosis in cancer: development of the Cancer Symptom Interval Measure (C-SIM) and randomised controlled trial of method of delivery

Background

The duration between first symptom and a cancer diagnosis is important because, if shortened, may lead to earlier stage diagnosis and improved cancer outcomes. We have previously developed a tool to measure this duration in newly-diagnosed patients. In this two-phase study, we aimed further improve our tool and to conduct a trial comparing levels of anxiety between two modes of delivery: self-completed versus researcher-administered.

Methods

In phase 1, ten patients completed the modified tool and participated in cognitive debrief interviews. In phase 2, we undertook a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) of the revised tool (Cancer Symptom Interval Measure (C-SIM)) in three hospitals for 11 different cancers. Respondents were invited to provide either exact or estimated dates of first noticing symptoms and presenting them to primary care. The primary outcome was anxiety related to delivery mode, with completeness of recording as a secondary outcome. Dates from a subset of patients were compared with GP records.

Results

After analysis of phase 1 interviews, the wording and format were improved. In phase 2, 201 patients were randomised (93 self-complete and 108 researcher-complete). Anxiety scores were significantly lower in the researcher-completed group, with a mean rank of 83.5; compared with the self-completed group, with a mean rank of 104.0 (Mann-Whitney U = 3152, p = 0.007). Completeness of data was significantly better in the researcher-completed group, with no statistically significant difference in time taken to complete the tool between the two groups. When comparing the dates in the patient questionnaires with those in the GP records, there was evidence in the records of a consultation on the same date or within a proscribed time window for 32/37 (86%) consultations; for estimated dates there was evidence for 23/37 consultations (62%).

Conclusions

We have developed and tested a tool for collecting patient-reported data relating to appraisal intervals, help-seeking intervals, and diagnostic intervals in the cancer diagnostic pathway for 11 separate cancers, and provided evidence of its acceptability, feasibility and validity. This is a useful tool to use in descriptive and epidemiological studies of cancer diagnostic journeys, and causes less anxiety if administered by a researcher.

Trial registration

ISRCTN04475865

The role of primary care in early detection and follow-up of cancer

Primary care providers have important roles across the cancer continuum, from encouraging screening and accurate diagnosis to providing care during and after treatment for both the cancer and any comorbid conditions. Evidence shows that higher cancer screening participation rates are associated with greater involvement of primary care. Primary care providers are pivotal in reducing diagnostic delay, particularly in health systems that have long waiting times for outpatient diagnostic services. However, so-called fast-track systems designed to speed up hospital referrals are weakened by significant variation in their use by general practitioners (GPs), and affect the associated conversion and detection rates. Several randomized controlled trials have shown primary care-led follow-up care to be equivalent to hospital-led care in terms of patient wellbeing, recurrence rates and survival, and might be less costly. For primary care-led follow-up to be successful, appropriate guidelines must be incorporated, clear communication must be provided and specialist care must be accessible if required. Finally, models of long-term cancer follow-up are needed that provide holistic care and incorporate management of co-morbid conditions. We discuss all these aspects of primary care, focusing on the most common cancers managed at the GP office-breast, colorectal, prostate, lung and cervical cancers.

Secondary care intervals before and after the introduction of urgent referral guidelines for suspected cancer in Denmark: a comparative before-after study

BACKGROUND

Urgent referral for suspected cancer was implemented in Denmark on 1 April 2008 to reduce the secondary care interval (i.e. the time interval from the general practitioner's first referral of a patient to secondary health care until treatment is initiated). However, knowledge about the association between the secondary care interval and urgent referral remains scarce. The aim of this study was to analyse how the secondary care interval changed after the introduction of urgent referral.

METHODS

This was a retrospective population-based study of 6,518 incident cancer patients based on questionnaire data from the patients' GPs. Analyses were stratified with patients discharged from Vejle Hospital in one stratum and patients from other hospitals in another because Vejle Hospital initiated urgent referrals several years prior to the national implementation. Further, analyses were stratified according to symptom presentation and whether or not the GP referred the patient on suspicion of cancer. Symptom presentation was defined as with or without alarm symptoms based on GP interpretation of early symptoms.

RESULTS

The median secondary care interval decreased after the introduction of urgent referral. Patients discharged from Vejle Hospital tended to have shorter secondary care intervals than patients discharged from other hospitals. The strongest effect was seen in patients with alarm symptoms and those who were referred by their GP on suspicion of cancer. Breast cancer patients from Vejle Hospital experienced an even shorter secondary care interval after the national introduction of urgent referrals.

CONCLUSION

Urgent referral had a positive effect on the secondary care interval, and Vejle Hospital remarkably managed to shorten the intervals even further. This finding indicates that the shorter secondary care intervals not only result from the urgent referral guidelines, but also involve other factors.

Frequency of 'warning signs of cancer' in Norwegian general practice, with prospective recording of subsequent cancer

BACKGROUND

Early diagnosis of cancer is an important challenge in general practice. Symptoms are the most common starting points.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association between symptoms presented and subsequent cancer.

DESIGN

A cohort study of all patients seen consecutively by GPs. Prospective recording of cancer diagnosis, new cancer or new recurrence.

SETTING

Two hundred and eighty-three general practice surgeries and 10 working days.

METHOD

During patient consultations, GPs registered seven focal symptoms and three general symptoms, commonly considered as warning signs of cancer (WSC). Follow-up 6-11 months later with registration of any subsequent diagnosis of cancer was done.

RESULTS

Of 51 073 patients, 6321 (12.4%) had recordings of 7704 WSC. During a median follow-up period of 8 months, 263 patients were diagnosed with cancer and 59 of them with recurrence of a previously diagnosed cancer. Of the cancer patients, 106 (40%) had presented one or more WSC during a preceding consultation. Examined symptoms had likelihood ratios for cancer from 1.5 to 8.2 and positive predictive values (PPVs) from 0.8% to 3.8%. Limited to older age groups, PPVs were a little higher. General symptoms were rarely associated with cancer unless a focal symptom had been recorded as well. Multiple symptoms increased the probability of cancer.

CONCLUSION

12.4% of GP patients presented with WSC. A general symptom may have cancer diagnostic value, but usually, only when it occurs along with a focal symptom. PPV of any single symptom is low, and decisions about referral require additional information.

Assessing the value of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) in improving the appropriateness of referrals for colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

A blood test may be an effective means of improving the appropriateness of referrals for symptomatic patients referred to specialist colorectal clinics. We evaluated the accuracy of a serum matrix metalloproteinase (MMP9) test in indicating colorectal cancer or its precursor conditions in a symptomatic population.

METHODS

Patients aged over 18, referred urgently or routinely to secondary care following primary care presentation with colorectal symptoms completed a questionnaire and provided a blood sample for serum MMP9 estimation. Univariate analysis and logistic regression modelling investigated the association between presenting symptoms, MMP9 measurements and the diagnostic outcome of patient investigations, in order to derive the combination of factors which best predicted a high risk of malignancy.

RESULTS

Data were analysed for 1002 patients. Forty-seven cases of neoplasia were identified. Age, male gender, absence of anal pain, diabetes, blood in stools, urgent referral, previous bowel polyps and previous bowel cancer were significantly associated with neoplasia. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 measurements were not found to be associated with significant colorectal pathology.

CONCLUSION

This study, despite robust sampling protocols, showed no clear association between MMP9 and colorectal neoplasia. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 therefore appears to have little value as a tool to aid referral decisions in the symptomatic population.

The risk of a subsequent cancer diagnosis after herpes zoster infection: primary care database study

Background:

Herpes zoster and cancer are associated with immunosuppression. Zoster occurs more often in patients with an established cancer diagnosis. Current evidence suggests some risk of cancer after zoster but is inconclusive. We aimed to assess the risk of cancer following zoster and the impact of prior zoster on cancer survival.

Methods:

A primary care database retrospective cohort study was undertaken. Subjects with zoster were matched to patients without zoster. Risk of cancer following zoster was assessed by generating hazard ratios using Cox regression. Time to cancer was generated from the index date of zoster diagnosis.

Results:

In total, 2054 cancers were identified in 74 029 patients (13 428 zoster, 60 601 matches). The hazard ratio for cancer diagnosis after zoster was 2.42 (95% confidence interval 2.21, 2.66) and the median time to cancer diagnosis was 815 days. Hazard ratios varied between cancers, and were highest in younger patients. There were more cancers in patients with zoster than those without for all age groups and both genders. Prior immunosuppression was not associated with change in risk, and diagnosis of zoster before cancer did not affect survival.

Conclusion:

This study establishes an association between zoster and future diagnosis of cancer having implications for cancer case finding after zoster diagnosis.

How does the thought of cancer arise in a general practice consultation? Interviews with GPs

BACKGROUND

Only a few patients on a GP's list develop cancer each year. To find these cases in the jumble of presented problems is a challenge.

OBJECTIVE

To explore how general practitioners (GPs) come to think of cancer in a clinical encounter.

DESIGN

Qualitative interviews with Norwegian GPs, who were invited to think back on consultations during which the thought of cancer arose. The 11 GPs recounted and reflected on 70 such stories from their practices. A phenomenographic approach enabled the study of variation in GPs' ways of experiencing.

RESULTS

Awareness of cancer could arise in several contexts of attention: (1) Practising basic knowledge: explicit rules and skills, such as alarm symptoms, epidemiology and clinical know-how; (2) Interpersonal awareness: being alert to changes in patients' appearance or behaviour and to cues in their choice of words, on a background of basic knowledge and experience; (3) Intuitive knowing: a tacit feeling of alarm which could be difficult to verbalize, but nevertheless was helpful. Intuition built on the earlier mentioned contexts: basic knowledge, experience, and interpersonal awareness; (4) Fear of cancer: the existential context of awareness could affect the thoughts of both doctor and patient. The challenge could be how not to think about cancer all the time and to find ways to live with insecurity without becoming over-precautious.

CONCLUSION

The thought of cancer arose in the relationship between doctor and patient. The quality of their interaction and the doctor's accuracy in perceiving and interpreting cues were decisive.

Identifying patients with undetected colorectal cancer: an independent validation of QCancer (Colorectal)

Background:

Early identification of colorectal cancer is an unresolved challenge and the predictive value of single symptoms is limited. We evaluated the performance of QCancer (Colorectal) prediction model for predicting the absolute risk of colorectal cancer in an independent UK cohort of patients from general practice records.

Methods:

A total of 2.1 million patients registered with a general practice surgery between 01 January 2000 and 30 June 2008, aged 30-84 years (3.7 million person-years) with 3712 colorectal cancer cases were included in the analysis. Colorectal cancer was defined as incident diagnosis of colorectal cancer during the 2 years after study entry.

Results:

The results from this independent and external validation of QCancer (Colorectal) prediction model demonstrated good performance data on a large cohort of general practice patients. QCancer (Colorectal) had very good discrimination with an area under the ROC curve of 0.92 (women) and 0.91 (men), and explained 68% (women) and 66% (men) of the variation. QCancer (Colorectal) was well calibrated across all tenths of risk and over all age ranges with predicted risks closely matching observed risks.

Conclusion:

QCancer (Colorectal) appears to be a useful tool for identifying undetected cases of undiagnosed colorectal cancer in primary care in the United Kingdom.

Diagnostic interval and mortality in colorectal cancer: U-shaped association demonstrated for three different datasets

OBJECTIVE

To test the theory of a U-shaped association between time from the first presentation of symptoms in primary care to the diagnosis (the diagnostic interval) and mortality after diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC).

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Three population-based studies in Denmark and the United Kingdom using data from general practitioner's questionnaires, interviewer-administered patient questionnaires, and primary care records, respectively.

RESULTS

Despite variations in the potential selection and information bias when using different methods of identifying the date of first presentation, the association between the length of the diagnostic interval and 5-year mortality rate after the diagnosis of CRC was the same for all three types of data: displaying a U-shaped association with decreasing and subsequently increasing mortality with longer diagnostic intervals.

CONCLUSION

Unknown confounding and in particular confounding by indication is likely to explain the counterintuitive findings of higher mortality among patients with very short diagnostic intervals, but cannot explain the increasing mortality with longer diagnostic intervals. The results support the theory that longer diagnostic intervals cause higher mortality in patients with CRC.

Exfoliated colonocyte DNA levels and clinical features in the diagnosis of colorectal cancer: a cohort study in patients referred for investigation

AIM

Selection of patients for investigation of suspected colorectal cancer is difficult. One possible improvement may be to measure DNA isolated from exfoliated cells collected from the rectum.

METHOD

This was a cohort study in a surgical clinic. Participants were aged ≥40 years and referred for investigation of suspected colorectal cancer. Exclusion criteria were inflammatory bowel disease, previous gastrointestinal malignancy, or recent investigation. A sample of the mucocellular layer of the rectum was taken with an adapted proctoscope (the Colonix system). Haemoglobin, mean cell volume, ferritin, carcino-embryonic antigen and faecal occult bloods were tested. Analysis was by logistic regression.

RESULTS

Participation was offered to 828 patients, of whom 717 completed the investigations. Three were lost to follow up. Seventy-two (10%) had colorectal cancer. Exfoliated cell DNA was higher (P<0.001) in cancer (median 5.4 μg/ml [inter-quartile range 1.8,12]) compared with those without cancer (2.0 μg/ml [IQR 0.78,5.5]). Seven variables were independently associated with cancer, including age (odds ratio [OR], 1.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02,1.08; P<0.001) DNA (OR, 1.05; CI, 1.01,3.6; P=0.01), mean cell volume (OR, 0.93; CI, 0.89,0.97; P=0.001), carcino-embryonic antigen 1.02 per μg/l (CI, 1.00,1.04; P=0.02), male sex (OR, 2.0; CI, 1.1,3.6; P=0.02), rectal bleeding (OR, 2.4; CI, 1.3,4.5; P=0.007) and positive faecal occult blood (OR, 6.7; CI, 3.4, 13; P<0.001). The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve for the DNA score was 0.65 (0.58-0.72) and for the seven variable model 0.88 (CI, 0.84-0.92).

CONCLUSION

Quantification of exfoliated DNA from rectal cellular material has promise in the diagnosis of colorectal cancer, but this requires confirmation in a larger study.

The Andersen Model of Total Patient Delay: a systematic review of its application in cancer diagnosis

Objective

Patient pathways to presentation to health care professionals and initial management in primary care are key determinants of outcomes in cancer. Reducing diagnostic delays may result in improved prognosis and increase the proportion of early stage cancers identified. Investigating diagnostic delay could be facilitated by use of a robust theoretical framework. We systematically reviewed the literature reporting the application of Andersen's Model of Total Patient Delay (delay stages: appraisal, illness, behavioural, scheduling, treatment) in studies which assess cancer diagnosis.

Methods

We searched four electronic databases and conducted a narrative synthesis. Inclusion criteria were studies which: reported primary research, focused on cancer diagnosis and explicitly applied one or more stages of the Andersen Model in the collection or analysis of data.

Results

The vast majority of studies of diagnostic delay in cancer have not applied a theoretical model to inform data collection or reporting. Ten papers (reporting eight studies) met our inclusion criteria: three studied several cancers. The studies were heterogeneous in their methods and quality. The review confirmed that there are clearly identifiable stages between the recognition of a symptom, first presentation to a health care professional, subsequent diagnosis and initiation of treatment. There was strong evidence to support the existence and importance of appraisal and treatment delay as defined in the Andersen Model, although treatment delay requires expansion. There was some evidence to support scheduling delay which may be contributed to by both patient and the health service. Illness delay was often difficult to distinguish from appraisal delay. It was less clear whether behavioural delay exists as a separate significant stage.

Conclusions

Greater consistency is required in the conduct and reporting of studies of diagnostic delay in cancer. We propose refinements to the Andersen Model which could be used to increase its validity and improve the consistency of reporting in future studies.

Equity of colorectal cancer screening: cross-sectional analysis of National Bowel Cancer Screening Program data for South Australia

OBJECTIVE

The National Bowel Cancer Screening Program (NBCSP) is a population-based screening program based on a mailed screening invitation and immunochemical faecal occult blood test. Initial published evidence from the NBCSP concurs with international evidence on similar colorectal cancer screening programs about the unequal participation by different population sub-groups. The aim of the paper is to present an analysis of the equity of the NBCSP for South Australia, using the concept of horizontal equity, in order to identify geographical areas and population groups which may benefit from targeted approaches to increase participation rates in colorectal cancer screening.

METHOD

De-identified data from the NBCSP (February 2007 to July 2008) were provided by Medicare Australia. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were undertaken in order to identify the predictors of participation rates in the NBCSP.

RESULTS

The overall participation rate was 46.1%, although this was statistically significantly different (p<0.001) by gender (42.6% for males and 49.5% for females), socioeconomic status (40% in most deprived quintile through to 48.1% in most affluent quintile) and remoteness (45.6% for metropolitan, 46% for remote and 48.6% for rural areas). These findings were confirmed in multivariate analyses. Of the NBCSP participants, 0.24% (CI 95% 0.20-0.30) identified themselves as Indigenous and 8% (CI 95% 7.7-8.3) reported speaking a language other than English at home.

CONCLUSION

Findings from this study suggest inequities in participation in the NBCSP on the basis of gender, geographical location, Indigenous status and language spoken at home.

Cancer diagnosis in primary care

Around a quarter of those in the developed world die of cancer. Most cancers present to primary care with symptoms, even when there is a screening test for the particular cancer. However, the symptoms of cancer are also symptoms of benign disease, and the GP has to judge whether cancer is a possible explanation. Very little research examined this process until relatively recently. This review paper examines the process of primary care diagnosis, especially the selection of patients for rapid investigation. It concentrates on the four commonest UK cancers: breast, lung, colon, and prostate as these have been the subject of most recent studies.

The CAPER studies: five case-control studies aimed at identifying and quantifying the risk of cancer in symptomatic primary care patients

Background:

This paper reviews the background to five primary care case-control studies, collectively known as the CAPER studies (Cancer Prediction in Exeter). These studies, on colorectal, lung, prostate and brain tumours, sought to identify the particular features of cancer as reported to primary care. They also sought to quantify the risk of cancer for symptoms and primary care investigations, both individually and paired together.

Methods:

Two studies were on colorectal cancer: the former with 349 cases used hand searching and coding of entries, while the latter obtained 6442 cases from a national electronic database. The lung and prostate studies had 247 and 217 cases, respectively, and used manual methods. The brain study also used a national electronic database, which provided 3505 cases.

Results:

Generally, the symptoms matched previous series from secondary care, though the risks of cancer, expressed as positive predictive values, were lower. Rectal bleeding in colorectal cancer, and haemoptysis in lung cancer both had positive predictive values of 2.4%. The risk of a brain tumour with headache was one in a thousand.

Interpretation:

The results identify areas where current guidance on urgent referral for investigation of suspected cancer could be improved.

The risk of colorectal cancer with symptoms at different ages and between the sexes: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer is generally diagnosed following a symptomatic presentation to primary care. Although the presenting features of the cancer are well described, the risks they convey are less well known. This study aimed to quantify the risk of cancer for different symptoms, across age groups and in both sexes.

METHODS

This was a case-control study using pre-existing records in a large electronic primary care database. Cases were patients aged 30 years or older with a diagnosis of colorectal cancer between January 2001 and July 2006, matched to seven controls by age, sex and practice. All features of colorectal cancer recorded in the 2 years before diagnosis were identified. Features independently associated with cancer were identified using multivariable conditional logistic regression, and their risk of cancer quantified.

RESULTS

We identified 5477 cases, with 38,314 age, sex and practice-matched controls. Six symptoms and two abnormal investigations (anaemia and microcytosis) were independently associated with colorectal cancer. The positive predictive values of symptoms were: rectal bleeding, positive predictive value for a male aged > or = 80 years 4.5% (95% confidence interval 3.5, 5.9); change in bowel habit 3.9% (2.8, 5.5); weight loss 0.8% (0.5, 1.3); abdominal pain 1.2% (1.0, 1.4); diarrhoea 1.2% (1.0, 1.5) and constipation 0.7% (0.6, 0.8). Positive predictive values were lower in females and younger patients. Only 27% of patients had reported either of the two higher risk symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Most symptomatic colorectal cancers present with only a low-risk symptom. There is a need to find a method of identifying those at highest risk of cancer from the large number presenting with such symptoms.

Fiberoptic endoscopic examination and biopsy in determining the extent of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Introduction:

This paper reports on an ongoing primary care audit of cancer referrals undertaken in Scotland in 2006–2007 and 2007–2008.

Methods:

General practitioners (GPs) in Scotland were asked to review all new cancer diagnoses within their practice during the preceding year.

Results:

4181 patients were identified in year 1 and 12 294 in year 2. The pathway taken for patients to present to, and be referred from, their GP has been analysed for 7430 of the 12 294 patients identified within year 2 across five separate health boards. The time from first symptoms to presentation to a GP varied between tumour types, being the longest (median 30 days) for head and neck cancers and the shortest (median 2 days) for bladder cancer. In all, 25% of patients within the following tumour groups waited longer than 2 months to present to their GP following first symptoms: prostate, colorectal, melanoma and head and neck cancers. Once patients had presented to their GP, those with prostate and lung cancer were referred later (median time 11 days) than those with breast cancer (median time 2 days). The priority with which GPs referred patients varied considerably between tumour groups (breast cancer 77.5% ‘urgent’ compared with prostate cancer 44.7% ‘urgent’). In one health board the proportion of cancer patients being referred urgently increased from 46% to 58% between the first and second audit.

Conclusion:

Our data show that there are very different patterns of presentation and referral for patients with cancer, with some tumour groups being more likely to be associated with a delayed diagnosis than others.