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Abstract
SUMMARY Cytokines mediate key communication pathways essential for regulation of immune responses. Full activation of antigen-responding lymphocytes requires cooperating signals from the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related cytokines and their specific receptors. LIGHT, a lymphotoxin-beta (LTbeta)-related TNF family member, modulates T-cell activation through two receptors, the herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) and indirectly through the LT-beta receptor. An unexpected finding revealed a non-canonical binding site on HVEM for the immunoglobulin superfamily member, B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), and an inhibitory signaling protein suppressing T-cell activation. Thus, HVEM can act as a molecular switch between proinflammatory and inhibitory signaling. The non-canonical HVEM-BTLA pathway also acts to counter LTbetaR signaling that promotes the proliferation of antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs) within lymphoid tissue microenvironments. These results indicate LTbeta receptor and HVEM-BTLA pathways form an integrated signaling circuit. Targeting these cytokine pathways with specific antagonists (antibody or decoy receptor) can alter lymphocyte differentiation and activation. Alternately, agonists directed at their cell surface receptors can restore homeostasis and potentially reset immune and inflammatory processes, which may be useful in treating autoimmune and infectious diseases and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl F Ware
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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52
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Pentcheva-Hoang T, Corse E, Allison JP. Negative regulators of T-cell activation: potential targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer, autoimmune disease, and persistent infections. Immunol Rev 2009; 229:67-87. [PMID: 19426215 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2009.00763.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The generation of productive adaptive immune responses depends on the antigen-specific activation of T and B cells. The outcome of T-cell receptor engagement is influenced by signals from both positive and negative regulatory molecules that can either activate or inhibit T-cell function. CD28 and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 are the prototypical members of an immunoglobulin domain-containing protein family that play important roles in the control of T-cell responses against infection, cancer, and in autoimmune disease. Although the precise molecular details of their functions are still under active investigation, tumors and chronic pathogens seem to have exploited these pathways to achieve immune evasion. Furthermore, malfunction of the inhibitory arm of the immune response appears responsible for the development of multiple autoimmune pathologies. As a result, the negative regulators of T-cell activation have become attractive targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer, chronic infection, and autoimmune disease. The application of findings from basic research has provided insight into the manipulation of these pathways in the clinic and offers promising strategies for the treatment of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsvetelina Pentcheva-Hoang
- Department of Immunology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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53
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Unconventional ligand activation of herpesvirus entry mediator signals cell survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:6244-9. [PMID: 19332782 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0902115106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM; TNFRSF14) activates NF-kappaB through the canonical TNF-related cytokine LIGHT, serving as a costimulatory pathway during activation of T cells. HVEM also functions as a ligand for the Ig superfamily members B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) and CD160, both of which limit inflammatory responses initiated by T cells. Emerging evidence indicates BTLA also promotes T cell survival, but its structural differences from LIGHT intimate BTLA is unlikely to function as an activator of HVEM. We demonstrate here that BTLA, CD160, and herpes simplex virus envelope glycoprotein D (gD) function as activating ligands for HVEM, promoting NF-kappaB activation and cell survival. Membrane-expressed BTLA and CD160, as well as soluble dimeric receptor surrogates BTLA-Fc and gD-Fc specifically activated HVEM-dependent NF-kappaB. BTLA and CD160 engagement induced recruitment of TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), but not TRAF3, to HVEM that specifically activated the RelA but not the RelB form of NF-kappaB in a mucosal epithelial tumor cell line. Moreover, Btla(-/-) T cells survived poorly following activation but were rescued with BTLA-Fc, indicating HVEM-BTLA bidirectional signaling may serve as a critical cell-survival system for lymphoid and epithelial cells.
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54
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Vendel AC, Calemine-Fenaux J, Izrael-Tomasevic A, Chauhan V, Arnott D, Eaton DL. B and T lymphocyte attenuator regulates B cell receptor signaling by targeting Syk and BLNK. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:1509-17. [PMID: 19155498 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.3.1509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) functions as a negative regulator of T cell activation and proliferation. Although the role of BTLA in regulating T cell responses has been characterized, a thorough investigation into the precise molecular mechanisms involved in BTLA-mediated lymphocyte attenuation and, more specifically, its role in regulating B cell activation has not been presented. In this study, we have begun to elucidate the biochemical mechanisms by which BTLA functions to inhibit B cell activation. We describe the cell surface expression of BTLA on various human B cell subsets and confirm its ability to attenuate B cell proliferation upon associating with its known ligand, herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM). BTLA associates with the BCR and, upon binding to HVEM, recruits the tyrosine phosphatase Src homology 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 and reduces activation of signaling molecules downstream of the BCR. This is exemplified by a quantifiable decrease in tyrosine phosphorylation of the protein tyrosine kinase Syk, as measured by absolute quantification mass spectrometry. Furthermore, effector molecules downstream of BCR signaling, including the B cell linker protein, phospholipase Cgamma2, and NF-kappaB, display decreased activation and nuclear translocation, respectively, after BTLA activation by HVEM. These results begin to provide insight into the mechanism by which BTLA negatively regulates B cell activation and indicates that BTLA is an inhibitory coreceptor of the BCR signaling pathway and attenuates B cell activation by targeting the downstream signaling molecules Syk and B cell linker protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Vendel
- Department of Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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55
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Varela-Rohena A, Carpenito C, Perez EE, Richardson M, Parry RV, Milone M, Scholler J, Hao X, Mexas A, Carroll RG, June CH, Riley JL. Genetic engineering of T cells for adoptive immunotherapy. Immunol Res 2009; 42:166-81. [PMID: 18841331 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-008-8057-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
To be effective for the treatment of cancer and infectious diseases, T cell adoptive immunotherapy requires large numbers of cells with abundant proliferative reserves and intact effector functions. We are achieving these goals using a gene therapy strategy wherein the desired characteristics are introduced into a starting cell population, primarily by high efficiency lentiviral vector-mediated transduction. Modified cells are then expanded using ex vivo expansion protocols designed to minimally alter the desired cellular phenotype. In this article, we focus on strategies to (1) dissect the signals controlling T cell proliferation; (2) render CD4 T cells resistant to HIV-1 infection; and (3) redirect CD8 T cell antigen specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Varela-Rohena
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Blvd-556 BRB II/III, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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56
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Ware CF. Targeting the LIGHT-HVEM Pathway. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 647:146-55. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-89520-8_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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57
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Sedý JR, Spear PG, Ware CF. Cross-regulation between herpesviruses and the TNF superfamily members. Nat Rev Immunol 2008; 8:861-73. [PMID: 18949019 DOI: 10.1038/nri2434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Herpesviruses have evolved numerous strategies to subvert host immune responses so they can coexist with their host species. These viruses 'co-opt' host genes for entry into host cells and then express immunomodulatory genes, including mimics of members of the tumour-necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily, that initiate and alter host-cell signalling pathways. TNF superfamily members have crucial roles in controlling herpesvirus infection by mediating the direct killing of infected cells and by enhancing immune responses. Despite these strong immune responses, herpesviruses persist in a latent form, which suggests a dynamic relationship between the host immune system and the virus that results in a balance between host survival and viral control.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Sedý
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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58
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Mode of transmission affects the sensitivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to restriction by rhesus TRIM5alpha. J Virol 2008; 82:11117-28. [PMID: 18768965 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01046-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhesus TRIM5alpha (rhTRIM5alpha), but not human TRIM5alpha (huTRIM5alpha), potently inhibits human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and is thus a potentially valuable therapeutic tool. Primary human CD4 T cells engineered to express rhTRIM5alpha were highly resistant to cell-free HIV type 1 (HIV-1) infection. However, when cocultured with unmodified T cells, rhTRIM5alpha-expressing cells became highly permissive to HIV-1 infection. Physical separation of rhTRIM5alpha-expressing cells and unmodified cells revealed that rhTRIM5alpha efficiently restricts cell-free but not cell-associated HIV transmission. Furthermore, we observed that HIV-infected human cells could infect rhesus CD4 T cells by cell-to-cell contact, but the infection was self-limiting. Subsequently, we noted that a spreading infection ensued when HIV-1-infected rhTRIM5alpha-expressing human cells were cultured with huTRIM5alpha- but not rhTRIM5alpha-expressing cells. Our results suggest that cell-associated HIV transmission in humans is blocked only when both donor and recipient cells express rhTRIM5alpha. These studies further define the role of rhTRIM5alpha in cell-free and cell-associated HIV transmission and delineate the utility of rhTRIM5alpha in anti-HIV therapy.
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59
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Basu S, Golovina T, Mikheeva T, June CH, Riley JL. Cutting edge: Foxp3-mediated induction of pim 2 allows human T regulatory cells to preferentially expand in rapamycin. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:5794-8. [PMID: 18424697 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.9.5794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Addition of rapamycin to cultures of expanding natural CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T regulatory cells (Tregs) helps maintain their suppressive activity, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Pim 2 is a serine/threonine kinase that can confer rapamycin resistance. Unexpectedly, pim 2 was found to be constitutively expressed in freshly isolated, resting Tregs, but not in CD4+CD25- T effector cells. Introduction of Foxp3, but not Foxp3Delta2, into effector T cells induced pim 2 expression and conferred preferential expansion in the presence of rapamycin, indicating that Foxp3 can regulate pim 2 expression. Finally, we determined there is a positive correlation between Treg expansion and Foxp3 expression in the presence of rapamycin. Together, these results indicate that Tregs are programmed to be resistant to rapamycin, providing further rationale for why this immunosuppressive drug should be used in conjunction with expanded Tregs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samik Basu
- Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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60
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De Trez C, Schneider K, Potter K, Droin N, Fulton J, Norris PS, Ha SW, Fu YX, Murphy T, Murphy KM, Pfeffer K, Benedict CA, Ware CF. The inhibitory HVEM-BTLA pathway counter regulates lymphotoxin receptor signaling to achieve homeostasis of dendritic cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:238-48. [PMID: 18097025 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.1.238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Proliferation of dendritic cells (DC) in the spleen is regulated by positive growth signals through the lymphotoxin (LT)-beta receptor; however, the countering inhibitory signals that achieve homeostatic control are unresolved. Mice deficient in LTalpha, LTbeta, LTbetaR, and the NFkappaB inducing kinase show a specific loss of CD8- DC subsets. In contrast, the CD8alpha- DC subsets were overpopulated in mice deficient in the herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) or B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA). HVEM- and BTLA-deficient DC subsets displayed a specific growth advantage in repopulating the spleen in competitive replacement bone marrow chimeric mice. Expression of HVEM and BTLA were required in DC and in the surrounding microenvironment, although DC expression of LTbetaR was necessary to maintain homeostasis. Moreover, enforced activation of the LTbetaR with an agonist Ab drove expansion of CD8alpha- DC subsets, overriding regulation by the HVEM-BTLA pathway. These results indicate the HVEM-BTLA pathway provides an inhibitory checkpoint for DC homeostasis in lymphoid tissue. Together, the LTbetaR and HVEM-BTLA pathways form an integrated signaling network regulating DC homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl De Trez
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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61
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Nelson CA, Fremont MD, Sedy JR, Norris PS, Ware CF, Murphy KM, Fremont DH. Structural Determinants of Herpesvirus Entry Mediator Recognition by Murine B and T Lymphocyte Attenuator. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:940-7. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.2.940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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62
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Hurchla MA, Sedy JR, Murphy KM. Unexpected role of B and T lymphocyte attenuator in sustaining cell survival during chronic allostimulation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:6073-82. [PMID: 17475832 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.10.6073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA; CD272) can deliver inhibitory signals to B and T cells upon binding its ligand herpesvirus entry mediator. Because CD28, CTLA-4, programmed death-1, and ICOS regulate the development of acute graft-vs-host disease (GVHD), we wished to assess if BTLA also played a role in this T cell-mediated response. In the nonirradiated parental-into-F1 model of acute GVHD, BTLA+/+ and BTLA-/- donor lymphocytes showed equivalent engraftment and expansion during the first week of the alloresponse. Unexpectedly, BTLA-/- donor T cells failed to sustain GVHD, showing a decline in surviving donor cell numbers beginning at day 9 and greatly reduced by day 11. Similarly, inhibition of BTLA-herpesvirus entry mediator engagement by in vivo administration of a blocking anti-BTLA Ab also caused reduced survival of donor cells. Microarray analysis revealed several genes that were differentially expressed by BTLA-/- and BTLA+/+ donor CD4+ T cells preceding the decline in BTLA-/- donor T cells. Several genes influencing Th cell polarization were differentially expressed by BTLA+/+ and BTLA-/- donor cells. Additionally, the re-expression of the IL-7Ralpha subunit that occurs in BTLA+/+ donor cells after 1 wk of in vivo allostimulation was not observed in BTLA-/- donor CD4+ cells. The striking loss of BTLA-/- T cells in this model indicates a role for BTLA activity in sustaining CD4+ T cell survival under the conditions of chronic stimulation in the nonirradiated parental-into-F1 GVHD.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/administration & dosage
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- Cell Survival/immunology
- Chronic Disease
- Disease Models, Animal
- Graft Survival/immunology
- Graft vs Host Disease/immunology
- Graft vs Host Disease/metabolism
- Graft vs Host Disease/pathology
- Isoantigens/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred MRL lpr
- Mice, Knockout
- Receptors, Immunologic/deficiency
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/immunology
- Receptors, Immunologic/physiology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Hurchla
- Department of Pathology and Center for Immunology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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63
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Krieg C, Boyman O, Fu YX, Kaye J. B and T lymphocyte attenuator regulates CD8+ T cell-intrinsic homeostasis and memory cell generation. Nat Immunol 2007; 8:162-71. [PMID: 17206146 DOI: 10.1038/ni1418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2006] [Accepted: 11/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) is a negative regulator of T cell activation, but its function in vivo is not well characterized. Here we show that mice deficient in full-length BTLA or its ligand, herpesvirus entry mediator, had increased number of memory CD8(+) T cells. The memory CD8(+) T cell phenotype resulted from a T cell-intrinsic perturbation of the CD8(+) T cell pool. Naive BTLA-deficient CD8(+) T cells were more efficient than wild-type cells at generating memory in a competitive antigen-specific system. This effect was independent of the initial expansion of the responding antigen-specific T cell population. In addition, BTLA negatively regulated antigen-independent homeostatic expansion of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. These results emphasize two central functions of BTLA in limiting T cell activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Krieg
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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64
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Garapati VP, Lefranc MP. IMGT Colliers de Perles and IgSF domain standardization for T cell costimulatory activatory (CD28, ICOS) and inhibitory (CTLA4, PDCD1 and BTLA) receptors. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 31:1050-72. [PMID: 17391759 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2007.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 01/24/2007] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
T cell activation depends on the specific recognition by their T cell receptors (TR) of antigenic peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex (pMHC). Optimal T cell responses occur when T cells not only receive antigen-specific signals through the TR but also non-antigen-specific costimulatory activatory or inhibitory signals through costimulatory receptors. The activatory CD28/B7-1 (or B7-2), inhibitory CTLA4/B7-1 (or B7-2), activatory ICOS/B7H2 and inhibitory PDCD1/B7H1 (or B7DC) pathways involve the interaction of the V-LIKE-DOMAIN of the receptor with a B7 family member. The BTLA/HVEM pathway involves the interaction of the BTLA receptor C-LIKE-DOMAIN with HVEM, a TNFR family member. The human and mouse CD28, CTLA4, ICOS, PDCD1 and BTLA genes, alleles and alternative transcripts and the IMGT Colliers de Perles of the IgSF domains, based on the IMGT unique numbering, are described according to the IMGT-ONTOLOGY concepts of IMGT, the international ImMunoGeneTics information system, http://imgt.cines.fr).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Phani Garapati
- IMGT, The International ImMunoGeneTics Information System, Laboratoire d'ImmunoGénétique Moléculaire, LIGM, Institut de Génétique Humaine, IGH, UPR CNRS 1142, 141 rue de la Cardonille 34396 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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