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Stintzing S, Lenz HJ. Molecular pathways: turning proteasomal protein degradation into a unique treatment approach. Clin Cancer Res 2014; 20:3064-70. [PMID: 24756373 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-13-3175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cancer treatment regimens have evolved from single cytotoxic substances affecting all proliferative tissues toward antibodies and kinase inhibitors targeting tumor-specific pathways. Treatment efficacy and cancer survival have improved overall, and side effects have become less frequent. The ubiquitin-proteasome system-mediated proteasomal protein degradation is the most critical pathway to regulate the quantity of signal proteins involved in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. These processes are, as well as protein recycling, highly regulated and offer targets for biomarker and drug development. Unspecific proteasome inhibitors such as bortezomib and carfilzomib have shown clinical efficacy and are approved for clinical use. Inhibitors of more substrate-specific enzymes of degradation processes are being developed and are now in early clinical trials. The novel compounds focus on the degradation of key regulatory proteins such as p53, p27(Kip1), and ß-catenin, and inhibitors specific for growth factor receptor kinase turnover are in preclinical testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Stintzing
- Authors' Affiliation: USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, Sharon Carpenter Laboratory, Los Angeles, California
| | - Heinz-Josef Lenz
- Authors' Affiliation: USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, Sharon Carpenter Laboratory, Los Angeles, California
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MRE11A and SKP2 genes are associated with the increased cytotoxicity induced by the synergistic effects of cisplatin and gemcitabine in bladder cancer cells. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:4613-21. [PMID: 24652204 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3332-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The combination of gemcitabine and cisplatin has been shown previously to elicit a synergistic therapeutic effect on bladder cancer cell lines and result in reduced cell survival. However, the precise mechanism by which cells die has not been elucidated. Cell cycle-related genes are the predominant targets of chemotherapeutic protocols. Therefore, molecular biomarkers that are predictive of therapeutic outcomes associated with tumor sensitivity might be important for optimal treatment protocol selection. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in gene expression in cell cycle-related genes that were induced by cisplatin, gemcitabine or a combined treatment using both agents in a low-grade urinary bladder transitional carcinoma cell line (RT4). The following three treatment protocols were used: 1.0 μM cisplatin, 1.56 μM gemcitabine and a combination of 1.0 μM cisplatin and 1.56 μM gemcitabine. Cytometry and morphology analysis (by phase-contrast photomicrography) were performed in addition to pathway-specific gene expression analysis using quantitative RT-PCR gene arrays. The following results were observed after 1.0 μM cisplatin treatment: (1) a decrease in cell number, (2) an increased percentage of scattered cells and (3) downregulated expression of genes related to cell cycle arrest, G1/S-to-mitotic cell cycle transition, DNA repair, apoptosis, transcription and mitosis. Treatment with 1.56 μM gemcitabine, or with both drugs simultaneously, induced the following effects: (1) a decrease in cell number, (2) an increased percentage of scattered and elongated cells, (3) the modulation of genes that are predominantly involved in DNA repair and (4) a significant upregulation of genes related to cell cycle arrest. Reduced cell density was observed after the combined treatment compared to the two other single-agent protocols. The downregulation of MRE11A and SKP2 was observed only in cells subjected to the combined treatment. In conclusion, cisplatin, gemcitabine and the combination of both drugs elicited distinct toxicogenomic effects in the RT4 bladder transitional carcinoma cell line, although disruptions in the expression of cell cycle control-related genes and other pathways responsible for cell survival were observed for all of the protocols. MRE11A and SKP2 downregulation appeared to be responsible for the synergistic therapeutic effects elicited by cisplatin and gemcitabine.
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Szabó DR, Baghy K, Szabó PM, Zsippai A, Marczell I, Nagy Z, Varga V, Éder K, Tóth S, Buzás EI, Falus A, Kovalszky I, Patócs A, Rácz K, Igaz P. Antitumoral effects of 9-cis retinoic acid in adrenocortical cancer. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:917-32. [PMID: 23807211 PMCID: PMC11113805 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1408-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The currently available medical treatment options of adrenocortical cancer (ACC) are limited. In our previous meta-analysis of adrenocortical tumor genomics data, ACC was associated with reduced retinoic acid production and retinoid X receptor-mediated signaling. Our objective has been to study the potential antitumoral effects of 9-cis retinoic acid (9-cisRA) on the ACC cell line NCI-H295R and in a xenograft model. Cell proliferation, hormone secretion, and gene expression have been studied in the NCI-H295R cell line. A complex bioinformatics approach involving pathway and network analysis has been performed. Selected genes have been validated by real-time qRT-PCR. Athymic nude mice xenografted with NCI-H295R have been used in a pilot in vivo xenograft model. 9-cisRA significantly decreased cell viability and steroid hormone secretion in a concentration- and time-dependent manner in the NCI-H295R cell line. Four major molecular pathways have been identified by the analysis of gene expression data. Ten genes have been successfully validated involved in: (1) steroid hormone secretion (HSD3B1, HSD3B2), (2) retinoic acid signaling (ABCA1, ABCG1, HMGCR), (3) cell-cycle damage (GADD45A, CCNE2, UHRF1), and the (4) immune response (MAP2K6, IL1R2). 9-cisRA appears to directly regulate the cell cycle by network analysis. 9-cisRA also reduced tumor growth in the in vivo xenograft model. In conclusion, 9-cisRA might represent a promising new candidate in the treatment of hormone-secreting adrenal tumors and adrenocortical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Rita Szabó
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Kornélia Baghy
- 1st Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer Research, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Üllői Str. 26, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Peter M. Szabó
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Adrienn Zsippai
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - István Marczell
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Zoltán Nagy
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Vivien Varga
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Katalin Éder
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad Sq. 4, Budapest, 1089 Hungary
| | - Sára Tóth
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad Sq. 4, Budapest, 1089 Hungary
| | - Edit I. Buzás
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad Sq. 4, Budapest, 1089 Hungary
| | - András Falus
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad Sq. 4, Budapest, 1089 Hungary
| | - Ilona Kovalszky
- 1st Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer Research, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Üllői Str. 26, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Attila Patócs
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Károly Rácz
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
| | - Peter Igaz
- 2nd Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Szentkirályi Str. 46, Budapest, 1088 Hungary
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Chan KC, Ting CM, Chan PS, Lo MC, Lo KW, Curry JE, Smyth T, Lee AWM, Ng WT, Tsao GSW, Wong RNS, Lung ML, Mak NK. A novel Hsp90 inhibitor AT13387 induces senescence in EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells and suppresses tumor formation. Mol Cancer 2013; 12:128. [PMID: 24156782 PMCID: PMC3834878 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-12-128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial malignancy strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). AT13387 is a novel heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitor, which inhibits the chaperone function of Hsp90 and reduces expression of Hsp90-dependent client oncoproteins. This study aimed to evaluate both the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of AT13387 in the EBV-positive NPC cell line C666-1. Results Our results showed that AT13387 inhibited C666-1 cell growth and induced cellular senescence with the downregulation of multiple Hsp90 client oncoproteins EGFR, AKT, CDK4, and restored the protein expression of negative cell cycle regulator p27. We also studied the ability of AT13387 to restore p27 expression by downregulation of AKT and the p27 ubiquitin mediator, Skp2, using AKT inhibitor and Skp2 siRNA. In the functional study, AT13387 inhibited cell migration with downregulation of a cell migration regulator, HDAC6, and increased the acetylation and stabilization of α-tubulin. We also examined the effect of AT13387 on putative cancer stem cells (CSC) by 3-D tumor sphere formation assay. AT13387 effectively reduced both the number and size of C666-1 tumor spheres with decreased expression of NPC CSC-like markers CD44 and SOX2. In the in vivo study, AT13387 significantly suppressed tumor formation in C666-1 NPC xenografts. Conclusion AT13387 suppressed cell growth, cell migration, tumor sphere formation and induced cellular senescence on EBV-positive NPC cell line C666-1. Also, the antitumor effect of AT13387 was demonstrated in an in vivo model. This study provided experimental evidence for the preclinical value of using AT13387 as an effective antitumor agent in treatment of NPC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Nai Ki Mak
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, P,R, China.
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Zhang M, Peng L, Qiao ZB, He HT, Zhou Y, Xu Z. Inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2013; 21:2250-2257. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v21.i23.2250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the effect of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway inhibitor wortmannin on cell proliferation, apoptosis and expression of pAkt, Skp2 and P27kip1 in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2.
METHODS: After treatment with different concentrations of wortmannin (0, 10, 50, 100, 200 nmol/L) for different durations (3, 10, 24 h), proliferation of HepG2 cells was analyzed by MTT assay, cell cycle and apoptosis were detected by flow cytometry, expression of pAkt, Skp2 and P27kip1 proteins was detected by Western blot, and the mRNA expression of Skp2 and P27kip1 was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.
RESULTS: Wortmannin inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The apoptosis rates of HepG2 cells significantly increased from 8.46% ± 1.17% to 28.03% ± 2.67% after treatment with wortmannin (P < 0.05). Wortmannin induced an increase in the percentage of cells in G0/G1 phase and a decrease in the percentage of cells in S phase cells (both P < 0.05). After treatment with wortmannin, the expression of pAkt and Skp2 proteins was down-regulated, while that of P27kip1 protein was up-regulated (all P < 0.05). In addition, Skp2 mRNA expression in HepG2 cells was significantly down-regulated (P < 0.05), although the expression of P27kip1 mRNA was not changed.
CONCLUSION: Wortmannin inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 possibly by regulating the expression of Skp2 and P27kip1.
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Ju Y, Yu A, Sun X, Wu D, Zhang H. Glucosamine, a naturally occurring amino monosaccharide, inhibits A549 and H446 cell proliferation by blocking G1/S transition. Mol Med Rep 2013; 8:794-8. [PMID: 23846431 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2013.1584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Uncontrolled proliferation is important in tumorigenesis. In the present study, the effects of glucosamine on lung cancer cell proliferation were investigated. The expression of cyclin E, one of the key cyclins in the G1/S transition, and Skp2, the ubiquitin ligase subunit that targets the negative cell cycle regulator, p27Kip1, were also assessed. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms of action of glucosamine were investigated in lung cancer cells. A549 and H446 cells were synchronized using thymidine in the presence or absence of glucosamine. The effect of glucosamine on lung cancer cell proliferation was determined by MTT assay. Cyclin E and p27Kip1 proteins and their phosphorylation levels were detected by western blot analysis. Furthermore, the effect of glucosamine on the cell cycle was evaluated by flow cytometry. Glucosamine was found to inhibit lung cancer cell proliferation and to suppress Skp2 and cyclin E expression. Notably, the phosphorylation levels of cyclin E (Thr62) and p27Kip1 (Thr187) were downregulated by glucosamine, and negatively correlated with degradation. Glucosamine was also found to arrest lung cancer cells in the G1/S phase. Thus, glucosamine may inhibit lung cancer cell proliferation by blocking G1/S transition through the inhibition of cyclin E and Skp2 protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghua Ju
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
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57
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Hurst JH, Dohlman HG. Dynamic ubiquitination of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK) Ste7 determines mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) specificity. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:18660-71. [PMID: 23645675 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.475707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification that tags proteins for proteasomal degradation. In addition, there is a growing appreciation that ubiquitination can influence protein activity and localization. Ste7 is a prototype MAPKK in yeast that participates in both the pheromone signaling and nutrient deprivation/invasive growth pathways. We have shown previously that Ste7 is ubiquitinated upon pheromone stimulation. Here, we show that the Skp1/Cullin/F-box ubiquitin ligase SCF(Cdc4) and the ubiquitin protease Ubp3 regulate Ste7 ubiquitination and signal specificity. Using purified components, we demonstrate that SCF(Cdc4) ubiquitinates Ste7 directly. Using gene deletion mutants, we show that SCF(Cdc4) and Ubp3 have opposing effects on Ste7 ubiquitination. Although SCF(Cdc4) is necessary for proper activation of the pheromone MAPK Fus3, Ubp3 is needed to limit activation of the invasive growth MAPK Kss1. Finally, we show that Fus3 phosphorylates Ubp3 directly and that phosphorylation of Ubp3 is necessary to limit Kss1 activation. These results reveal a feedback loop wherein one MAPK limits the ubiquitination of an upstream MAPKK and thereby prevents spurious activation of a second competing MAPK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian H Hurst
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7260, USA
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58
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Sorbye SW, Kilvaer TK, Valkov A, Donnem T, Smeland E, Al-Shibli K, Bremnes RM, Busund LT. Prognostic impact of Skp2, ER and PGR in male and female patients with soft tissue sarcomas. BMC Clin Pathol 2013; 13:9. [PMID: 23497154 PMCID: PMC3602168 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6890-13-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2) is a member of mammalian F-box proteins. The purpose of this study is to clarify the prognostic significance of expression of Skp2 related to gender, estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PGR) in soft tissue sarcomas (STS). Skp2 has been demonstrated to display an oncogenic function since its overexpression has been observed in many human cancers. Optimized treatment of STS requires better identification of high-risk patients who will benefit from adjuvant therapy. The prognostic significance of Skp2 related to ER and PGR in STS has not been sufficiently investigated. Methods Tissue microarrays from 193 STS patients were constructed from duplicate cores of viable and representative neoplastic tumor areas. Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the expression of Skp2, ER and PGR. Results In univariate analyses, high tumor expression of Skp2 correlated (p = 0.050) with reduced disease-specific survival (DSS). In subgroup analyses expression of PGR in males (p = 0.010) and in patients older than 60 years (p = 0.043) were negative prognostic factors for DSS. Expression of ER in females was a positive prognostic factor for DSS (p = 0.041). In co-expression analyses in the whole cohort, low expression of Skp2 in combination with low expression of ER was positive for DSS (p = 0.049). In females high expression of Skp2 in combination with low expression of ER was a negative prognosticator (p = 0.021). In the multivariate analyses, age (p = 0.012), malignancy grade (p < 0.001), wide resection margins (P = 0.010), ER negative / PGR positive co-expression profile (p = 0.002) and ER positive / PGR negative co-expression profile (p = 0.015) were independent negative prognostic factors for DSS. In females expression of Skp2 (p = 0.006) was associated with shorter DSS. Conclusions We found diverse prognostic impacts of expression of Skp2, ER, PGR and DSS in male and female patients with STS. In men, but not women, ER positive / PGR negative co-expression profile was an independent negative prognostic factor for DSS. In women, but not men, high expression of Skp2 was associated with reduced DSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sveinung W Sorbye
- Department of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway.
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Sorbye SW, Kilvaer TK, Valkov A, Donnem T, Smeland E, Al-Shibli K, Bremnes RM, Busund LT. Prognostic impact of Jab1, p16, p21, p62, Ki67 and Skp2 in soft tissue sarcomas. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47068. [PMID: 23071715 PMCID: PMC3465267 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to clarify the prognostic significance of expression of Jab1, p16, p21, p62, Ki67 and Skp2 in soft tissue sarcomas (STS). Optimised treatment of STS requires better identification of high risk patients who will benefit from adjuvant therapy. The prognostic significance of Jab1, p16, p21, p62, Ki67 and Skp2 in STS has not been sufficiently investigated. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Tissue microarrays from 193 STS patients were constructed from duplicate cores of viable and representative neoplastic tumor areas. Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the expression of Jab1, p16, p21, p62, Ki67 and Skp2. RESULTS In univariate analyses, high tumor expression of Ki67 (P = 0.007) and Skp2 (P = 0.050) correlated with shorter disease-specific survival (DSS). In subgroup analysis, a correlation between Skp2 and DSS was seen in patients with malignancy grade 1 or 2 (P = 0.027), tumor size >5 cm (P = 0.018), no radiotherapy given (P = 0.029) and no chemotherapy given (P = 0.017). No such relationship was apparent for Jab1, p16, p21 and p62; but p62 showed a positive correlation to malignancy grade (P = 0.019). Ki67 was strongly positively correlated to malignancy grade (P = 0.001). In multivariate analyses, Skp2 was an independent negative prognostic factor for DSS in women (P = 0.009) and in patients without administered chemotherapy or radiotherapy (P = 0.026). CONCLUSIONS Increased expression of Skp2 in patients with soft tissue sarcomas is an independent negative prognostic factor for disease-specific survival in women and in patients not administered chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Besides, further studies are warranted to explore if adjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy improve the poor prognosis of STS with high Skp2 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sveinung W Sorbye
- Department of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway.
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Pan Y, Xu H, Liu R, Jia L. Induction of cell senescence by targeting to Cullin-RING Ligases (CRLs) for effective cancer therapy. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 3:273-281. [PMID: 23097743 PMCID: PMC3476791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cullin-RING ligases (CRLs) are the biggest family of multiunit ubiquitin E3 ligases, controlling many biological processes by promoting the degradation of a broad spectrum of proteins associated with cell cycle, signal transduction and cell growth. The dysfunction of CRLs causes a lot of diseases including cancer, which meanwhile offers us a promising approach to cancer therapy by targeting to CRLs. Recent studies have demonstrated that genetic or pharmaceutical inactivation of CRLs often leads to cancer cell death by activating multiple cell-killing pathways including senescence, an emerging anticancer mechanism of therapeutic agents. Here, we summarize the induction of cellular senescence and its mechanism of action, triggered by targeting to specific subunits of CRLs via multiple approaches including siRNA silencing, genetic knockout as well as small molecule inhibitor, exhibiting anticancer effect in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongfu Pan
- Department of Immunology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan UniversityShanghai 200032, China
| | - Hua Xu
- Department of Immunology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan UniversityShanghai 200032, China
| | - Rujiao Liu
- Department of Immunology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan UniversityShanghai 200032, China
| | - Lijun Jia
- Department of Immunology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan UniversityShanghai 200032, China
- Biotherapy Research Center of Fudan UniversityShanghai 200032, China
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