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Exosomes for mRNA delivery: a novel biotherapeutic strategy with hurdles and hope. BMC Biotechnol 2021; 21:20. [PMID: 33691652 PMCID: PMC7945253 DOI: 10.1186/s12896-021-00683-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, therapeutic messenger RNAs (mRNAs) have emerged as a highly promising new class of drugs for protein replacement therapies. Due to the recent developments, the incorporation of modified nucleotides in synthetic mRNAs can lead to maximizing protein expression and reducing adverse immunogenicity. Despite these stunning improvements, mRNA therapy is limited by the need for the development of safe and efficient carriers to protect the mRNA integrity for in vivo applications. Recently, leading candidates for in vivo drug delivery vehicles are cell-derived exosomes, which have fewer immunogenic responses. In the current study, the key hurdles facing mRNA-based therapeutics, with an emphasis on recent strategies to overcoming its immunogenicity and instability, were highlighted. Then the immunogenicity and toxicity of exosomes derived from various cell sources were mentioned in detail. Finally, an overview of the recent strategies in using exosomes for mRNA delivery in the treatment of multiple diseases was stated.
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52
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Biofunctional Peptide-Modified Extracellular Vesicles Enable Effective Intracellular Delivery via the Induction of Macropinocytosis. Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9020224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that macropinocytosis (accompanied by actin reorganization, ruffling of the plasma membrane, and engulfment of large volumes of extracellular fluid) is an important process for the cellular uptake of extracellular vesicles, exosomes. Accordingly, we developed techniques to induce macropinocytosis by the modification of biofunctional peptides on exosomal membranes, thereby enhancing their cellular uptake. Arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides have been shown to induce macropinocytosis via proteoglycans; accordingly, we developed peptide-modified exosomes that could actively induce macropinocytotic uptake by cells. In addition, the activation of EGFR induces macropinocytosis; based on this knowledge, we developed artificial leucine-zipper peptide (K4)-modified exosomes. These exosomes can recognize E3 sequence-fused EGFR (E3-EGFR), leading to the clustering and activation of E3-EGFR by coiled-coil formation (E3/K4), which induces cellular exosome uptake by macropinocytosis. In addition, modification of pH-sensitive fusogenic peptides (e.g., GALA) also enhances the cytosolic release of exosomal contents. These experimental techniques and findings using biofunctional peptides have contributed to the development of exosome-based intracellular delivery systems.
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53
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Yang L, Han D, Zhan Q, Li X, Shan P, Hu Y, Ding H, Wang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Xue S, Zhao J, Hou X, Wang Y, Li P, Yuan X, Qi H. Erratum: Blood TfR+ exosomes separated by a pH-responsive method deliver chemotherapeutics for tumor therapy: Erratum. Theranostics 2021; 11:1543-1545. [PMID: 33408766 PMCID: PMC7778593 DOI: 10.7150/thno.55978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Ma YS, Yang XL, Xin R, Liu JB, Fu D. Power and promise of exosomes as clinical biomarkers and therapeutic vectors for liquid biopsy and cancer control. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2020; 1875:188497. [PMID: 33370570 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes, microvesicles derived from the nuclear endosome and plasma membrane, can be released into the extracellular environment to act as mediators between the cell membrane and cytoplasmic proteins, lipids, or RNA. Exosomes are considered effective carriers of intercellular signals in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, because of their ability to efficiently transfer proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids between cellular compartments. Since the 2007 discovery that exosomes carry bioactive substances, exosomes have been intensively researched. In various physiological and pathological processes, exosomes play important biological roles by specifically combining with receptor cells and transmitting information. Their stable biological characteristics, diversity of contents, non-invasiveness path for introducing signaling molecules, and ability for rapid detection make exosomes a promising clinical diagnostic marker for potentially many pathological conditions, including cancers. Exosomes are not only considered biomarkers and prognostic disease factors, but also have potential as gene carriers and drug delivery vectors, and have important clinical significance and application potential in the fields of cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Shui Ma
- Department of Pancreatic and Hepatobiliary Surgery, Cancer Hospital, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Cancer Institute, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong 226631, China; Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Xiao-Li Yang
- Central Laboratory for Medical Research, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, China
| | - Rui Xin
- Central Laboratory for Medical Research, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, China
| | - Ji-Bin Liu
- Cancer Institute, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong 226631, China
| | - Da Fu
- Central Laboratory for Medical Research, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, China.
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Qi H, Wang Y, Yuan X, Li P, Yang L. Selective extracellular arginine deprivation by a single injection of cellular non-uptake arginine deiminase nanocapsules for sustained tumor inhibition. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:24030-24043. [PMID: 33291128 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr06823c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The metabolic enzyme-based arginine deprivation represents a tremendous opportunity to treat argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS1)-deficient tumors. Arginine deiminase (ADI), a typical representative, has aroused great interest. To date, the functional modification of ADI, such as PEGylation, has been applied to improve its weakness significantly, reducing its immunogenicity and extending its blood circulation time. However, the advantages of ADI, such as the cellular non-uptake property, are often deprived by current modification methods. The cellular non-uptake property of ADI only renders extracellular arginine degradation that negligibly influences normal cells. However, current-functionalized ADIs can be readily phagocytized by cells, causing the imbalance of intracellular amino acids and the consequent damage to normal cells. Therefore, it is necessary to exploit a new method that can simultaneously improve the weakness of ADI and maintain its advantage of cellular non-uptake. Here, we utilized a kind of phosphorylcholine (PC)-rich nanocapsule to load ADI. These nanocapsules possessed extremely weak cellular interaction and could avoid uptake by endothelial cells (HUVEC), immune cells (RAW 264.7), and tumor cells (H22), selectively depriving extracellular arginine. Besides, these nanocapsules increased the blood half-life time of ADI from the initial 2 h to 90 h and efficiently avoided its immune or inflammatory responses. After a single injection of ADI nanocapsules into H22 tumor-bearing mice, tumors were stably suppressed for 25 d without any detectable side effects. This new strategy first realizes the selective extracellular arginine deprivation for the treatment of ASS1-deficient tumors, potentially promoting the clinical translation of metabolic enzyme-based amino acid deprivation therapy. Furthermore, the research reminds us that the functionalization of drugs can not only improve its weakness but also maintain its advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongzhao Qi
- Institute of Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, College of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266021, China.
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56
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Wu P, Zhang B, Ocansey DKW, Xu W, Qian H. Extracellular vesicles: A bright star of nanomedicine. Biomaterials 2020; 269:120467. [PMID: 33189359 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have unique structural, compositional, and morphological characteristics as well as predominant physiochemical stability and biocompatibility properties. They play a crucial role in pathophysiological regulation, and also have broad prospects for clinical application in the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of disease, and tissue regeneration and repair. Herein, the biosynthesis and physiological functions and current methods for separation and identification of EVs are summarized. Specifically, engineered EVs may be used to enhance targeted therapy in cancer and repair damaged tissues, and they may be developed as an individualized imaging diagnostic reagent, among other potential applications. We will focus on reviewing recent studies on engineered EVs in which alterations enhanced their therapeutic capability or diagnostic imaging potential via physical, chemical, and biological modification approaches. This review will clarify the superior biological functions and powerful therapeutic potential of EVs, particularly with regard to new designs based on EVs and their utilization in a new generation of nanomedicine diagnosis and treatment platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Wu
- Zhenjiang Key Laboratory of High Technology Research on Exosomes Foundation and Transformation Application, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, PR China
| | - Dickson Kofi Wiredu Ocansey
- Zhenjiang Key Laboratory of High Technology Research on Exosomes Foundation and Transformation Application, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Wenrong Xu
- Zhenjiang Key Laboratory of High Technology Research on Exosomes Foundation and Transformation Application, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Aoyang Institute of Cancer, Jiangsu University, 279 Jingang Road, Suzhou, 215600, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Hui Qian
- Zhenjiang Key Laboratory of High Technology Research on Exosomes Foundation and Transformation Application, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China; Aoyang Institute of Cancer, Jiangsu University, 279 Jingang Road, Suzhou, 215600, Jiangsu, PR China.
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57
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Thakur A, Sidu RK, Zou H, Alam MK, Yang M, Lee Y. Inhibition of Glioma Cells' Proliferation by Doxorubicin-Loaded Exosomes via Microfluidics. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:8331-8343. [PMID: 33149579 PMCID: PMC7605152 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s263956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malignant glioma is a fatal brain cancer. Accumulated evidence has demonstrated that exosomes can cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB), suggesting their potential use as drug delivery vehicles to glioma. Therefore, various loading methods of anticancer agents into exosomes have been developed. However, the loading efficiency of anticancer drugs, such as doxorubicin (DOX) and paclitaxel (PTX), into exosomes is relatively low, thus challenging to improve the drug delivery efficiency to glioma cells (GMs) via exosomes. Methods To improve the loading efficiency of doxorubicin into exosomes, a microfluidic device (Exo-Load) was developed. Next, to increase the exosomal delivery of doxorubicin to GMs, autologous exosomes were used for its loading via Exo-Load. Briefly, exosomes from SF7761 stem cells-like- and U251-GMs were isolated and characterized by nano-tracking analysis (NTA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and immunogold EM. Finally, doxorubicin was successfully loaded into exosomes with saponin by Exo-Load, and the uptake and functionality of doxorubicin-loaded exosomes for parent GMs were evaluated. Results The loading efficiency of DOX into SF7761 stem cells-like- and U251-GMs-derived-exosomes were 19.7% and 7.86% via Exo-Load at the injection flow rate of 50 µL/min, respectively. Interestingly, the loading efficiency of DOX into U251 GMs-derived exosomes was significantly improved to 31.98% by a sigmoid type of Exo-Load at the injection flow rate of 12.5 µL/min. Importantly, DOX-loaded GMs-derived exosomes via Exo-Load inhibited parent GMs’ proliferation more than heterologous GMs, supporting exosomes’ homing effect. Conclusion This study revealed that DOX and PTX could be loaded in exosomes via Exo-Load, demonstrating that Exo-Load could be a potential drug-loading device into exosomes with further optimization. This study also demonstrated that the delivery of DOX to SF7761 GMs via their daughter exosomes was much more efficient rather than U251 GMs-derived exosomes, supporting that the use of autologous exosomes could be better for glioma drug targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhimanyu Thakur
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Rakesh Kumar Sidu
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Heng Zou
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Md Kowsar Alam
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Mengsu Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Youngjin Lee
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR
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Gutierrez-Millan C, Calvo Díaz C, Lanao JM, Colino CI. Advances in Exosomes-Based Drug Delivery Systems. Macromol Biosci 2020; 21:e2000269. [PMID: 33094544 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202000269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes, a subgroup of extracellular vesicles, are important mediators of long-distance intercellular communication and are involved in a diverse range of biological processes such as the transport of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Researchers, seeing the problems caused by the toxic effects and clearance of synthetic nanoparticles, consider exosomes as an interesting alternative to such nanoparticles in the specific and controlled transport of drugs. In recent years, there have been remarkable advances in the use of exosomes in cancer therapeutics or for treating neurological diseases, among other applications. The objective of this work is to analyze studies focused on exosomes used in drug delivery system, present and future applications in this field of research are discussed based on the results obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Gutierrez-Millan
- Area of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
- The Institute for Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Clara Calvo Díaz
- Area of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - José M Lanao
- Area of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
- The Institute for Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Clara I Colino
- Area of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
- The Institute for Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, 37007, Spain
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59
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Gholipour E, Sarvarian P, Samadi P, Talebi M, Movassaghpour A, Motavalli R, Hojjat-Farsangi M, Yousefi M. Exosome: From leukemia progression to a novel therapeutic approach in leukemia treatment. Biofactors 2020; 46:698-715. [PMID: 32797698 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes, as small vesicles, are released by tumor cells and tumor microenvironment (cells and function as key intercellular mediators and effects on different processes including tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, drug resistance, and evasion from immune system. These functions are due to exosomes' biomolecules which make them as efficient markers in early diagnosis of the disease. Also, exosomes have been recently applied in vaccination. The potential role of exosomes in immune response toward leukemic cells makes them efficient immunotherapeutic agents treating leukemia. Furthermore, variations in exosomes contents make them beneficial to be used in treating different diseases. This review introduces the role of exosomes in the development of hematological malignancies and evaluates their functional role in the treatment of these malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Gholipour
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Parisa Sarvarian
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Parisa Samadi
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Talebi
- Hematology and Oncology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Aliakbar Movassaghpour
- Hematology and Oncology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Roza Motavalli
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hojjat-Farsangi
- Immune and Gene Therapy Lab, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Cancer Center Karolinska (CCK), Karolinska University Hospital Solna and Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mehdi Yousefi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Aging Research Institute, Tabriz university of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Endocrine Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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60
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Chinnappan M, Srivastava A, Amreddy N, Razaq M, Pareek V, Ahmed R, Mehta M, Peterson JE, Munshi A, Ramesh R. Exosomes as drug delivery vehicle and contributor of resistance to anticancer drugs. Cancer Lett 2020; 486:18-28. [PMID: 32439419 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are small membranous vesicles implicated in intercellular signalling. Through their uncanny ability to carry and deliver donor cellular cargo (biomolecules) to target cells, they exert a profound effect on the regular functioning of healthy cells and play a significant role in pathogenesis and progression of several diseases, including cancer. The composition and number of endogenously circulating exosomes frequently vary, which is often reflective of the pathophysiological status of the cell. Applicability of exosomes derived from normal cells as a drug carrier with or without modifying their intraluminal and surface components are generally tested. Conversely, exosomes also are reported to contribute to resistance towards several anti-cancer therapies. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully evaluate the role of exosomes in cancer progression, resistance and the potential use of exosomes as a delivery vehicle of cancer therapeutics. In this review, we summarize the recent advancements in the exploitation of exosomes as a drug delivery vehicle. We also discuss the role of exosomes in conferring resistance to anti-cancer therapeutics. While this review is focused on cancer, the exosome-based drug delivery and resistance is also applicable to other human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahendran Chinnappan
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Akhil Srivastava
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Narsireddy Amreddy
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Mohammad Razaq
- Department of Medicine, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Vipul Pareek
- Department of Medicine, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Rebaz Ahmed
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Meghna Mehta
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Jo Elle Peterson
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Anupama Munshi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Rajagopal Ramesh
- Department of Pathology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Stephenson Cancer Center, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA; Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
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