Use of wound dressings to enhance prevention of pressure ulcers caused by medical devices

Medical device related pressure ulcers (MDR PUs) are defined as pressure injuries associated with the use of devices applied for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes wherein the PU that develops has the same configuration as the device. Many institutions have reduced the incidence of traditional PUs (sacral, buttock and heel) and therefore the significance of MDR PU has become more apparent. The highest risk of MDR PU has been reported to be patients with impaired sensory perception, such as neuropathy, and an impaired ability for the patient to communicate discomfort, for example, oral intubation, language barriers, unconsciousness or non-verbal state. Patients in critical care units typify the high-risk patient and they often require more devices for monitoring and therapeutic purposes. An expert panel met to review the evidence on the prevention of MDR PUs and arrived at these conclusions: (i) consider applying dressings that demonstrate pressure redistribution and absorb moisture from body areas in contact with medical devices, tubing and fixators, (ii) in addition to dressings applied beneath medical devices, continue to lift and/or move the medical device to examine the skin beneath it and reposition for pressure relief and (iii) when simple repositioning does not relieve pressure, it is important not to create more pressure by placing dressings beneath tight devices.

"A room full of chairs around his bed": being present at the death of a loved one in Veterans Affairs Medical Centers

Historically, death took place at home where family held vigil around the dying patient. Today, family presence is an important feature of death and dying in hospital settings. We used hermeneutic phenomenology to explore experiences of being present at the hospital death of a loved one. We conducted in-depth, face-to-face interviews with 78 recently bereaved next-of-kin of veterans who died in 6 Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Centers in the Southeast United States. Two major themes emerged: 1) "settling in," characteristic of the experiences of wives and daughters in the initial phase of the patient's hospitalization; and 2) "gathering around," characteristic of the experiences of a wider array of family members as the patient neared death. An in-depth understanding of experiences of next-of-kin present at the hospital death of a loved one can increase staff awareness of family's needs and empower staff to develop policies and procedures for supporting family members.

Universality of physicians' burnout syndrome as a result of experiencing difficulty in relationship with patients

The aim of our work is to present the universality of burnout syndrome among physicians worldwide and to demonstrate selected aspects of the relationship between patients and doctors as a common factor predisposing to burnout. We looked up 20 original pieces of research from the Medline database published in the last 10 years to determine the prevalence of burnout among doctors in different countries. In all quoted works a remarkable percentage of doctors of interventional and non-interventional specialties suffered burnout. Because it is the relationship with patients that constitutes a key denominator for their work, in the discussion we have exposed an important aspect of it, destructive patient games, described on the basis of transactional analysis. Since universal burnout causes a deterioration of doctors' service, for the optimal good of the patient to survive preservation of the doctor's well-being in the patient-doctor relationship is needed everywhere.

Development of an instrument to measure the degree of critical patient's satisfaction with nursing care: research protocol

AIM

To investigate and understand patient's satisfaction with nursing care in the intensive care unit to identify the dimensions of the concept of 'satisfaction' from the patient's point of view. To design and validate a questionnaire that measures satisfaction levels in critical patients.

BACKGROUND

There are many instruments capable of measuring satisfaction with nursing care; however, they do not address the reality for critical patients nor are they applicable in our context.

DESIGN

A dual approach study comprising: a qualitative phase employing Grounded Theory and a quantitative and descriptive phase to prepare and validate the questionnaire.

METHODS

Data collection in the qualitative phase will consist of: in-depth interview after theoretical sampling, on-site diary and expert discussion group. The sample size will depend on the expected theoretical saturation n = 27-36. Analysis will be based on Grounded Theory. For the quantitative phase, the sampling will be based on convenience (n = 200). A questionnaire will be designed on the basis of qualitative data. Descriptive and inferential statistics will be used. The validation will be developed on the basis of the validity of the content, the criteria of the construct and reliability of the instrument by the Cronbach's alpha and test-retest approach. Approval date for this protocol was November 2010.

DISCUSSION

Self-perceptions, beliefs, experiences, demographic, socio-cultural epistemological and political factors are determinants for satisfaction, and these should be taken into account when compiling a questionnaire on satisfaction with nursing care among critical patients.

Toothbrushing for critically ill mechanically ventilated patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials evaluating ventilator-associated pneumonia

BACKGROUND

Oral care may decrease ventilator-associated pneumonia in the ICU. The objective of this review was to summarize and critically appraise randomized trials in mechanically ventilated patients in the ICU testing the effect of oral care strategies involving toothbrushing on ventilator-associated pneumonia.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched EMBASE, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register and Database of Systematic Reviews from 1980 until March 2012, independently and in duplicate, as well as personal files and reference lists. In duplicate, articles were selected if they were randomized trials, enrolled adult critically ill patients, compared any kind of oral care involving toothbrushing with any other kind of oral care or control with or without toothbrushing, and examined ventilator-associated pneumonia. In duplicate, we abstracted trial characteristics and quality using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. The results were combined using a random effects model.

RESULTS

We included six trials enrolling 1,408 patients, five of which compared toothbrushing to usual oral care and one of which compared electric with manual toothbrushing. In four trials, there was a trend toward lower ventilator-associated pneumonia rates (risk ratio, 0.77; 95% confidence interval, 0.50-1.21; p = 0.26). This trend was also observed in one trial reporting fewer cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia per 1,000 ventilator days (20.68 vs. 25.89; p = 0.53) in patients receiving toothbrushing vs. no toothbrushing. The only trial with low risk of bias suggested that toothbrushing significantly reduced ventilator-associated pneumonia (risk ratio, 0.26; 95% confidence interval, 0.10-0.67; p = 0.006). Use of chlorhexidine antisepsis seems to attenuate the effect of toothbrushing on ventilator-associated pneumonia (p for the interaction = 0.02). One trial comparing electric vs. manual toothbrushing showed no difference in ventilator-associated pneumonia rates (risk ratio, 0.96; 95% confidence interval, 0.47-1.96; p = 0.91). Toothbrushing did not impact on length of ICU stay, or ICU or hospital mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In intubated, mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, toothbrushing did not significantly reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia overall. Toothbrushing has no effect on mortality or length of stay. Electric and manual toothbrushing seem to have similar effects. More research is needed on this aspect of oral care to evaluate its potential to decrease ventilator-associated pneumonia.

Knowledge about medications and products to prevent and treat pressure ulcers: a cross-sectional survey of nurses and physicians in a primary health care setting

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To report on a study of what primary care nurses and physicians know about medications and healthcare products to prevent and treat pressure ulcers.

BACKGROUND

The prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers has generally become the responsibility of the nursing staff; this has resulted in studies of nurses' knowledge of this task, although few studies include physicians in their analysis.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey conducted in North Girona (Province) Primary Care Services from February to April 2010.

METHODS

The study questionnaire had three sections: sociodemographic data, questions about division of responsibility for the care of patients with pressure ulcers or at risk of developing them, and 36 statements based on the recommendations in clinical practice guidelines provided by well-recognised national and international institutions.

RESULTS

Eighty-one nurses (64·8%) and 46 physicians (36·8%) responded to this study. Nurses had greater responsibility for the care of pressure ulcers, made greater use of medical prescriptions to obtain supplies if not available in the primary care centre, were more familiar with the site's clinical practice guidelines on the topic and showed better adherence to their recommendations. Nurses also had better knowledge than the participating physicians of the use of medications and healthcare products to heal or to prevent pressure ulcers.

CONCLUSIONS

Nurses had sufficient knowledge and more appropriate skills than the participating physicians for the prescription of medications and healthcare products for the prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

The data demonstrated that nurses have sufficient knowledge and skill to provide wound care and could safely write these prescriptions, although Spanish law permitting nurse prescription is not fully implemented.

Cervical spine injuries and collar complications in severely injured paediatric trauma patients

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective registry review.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the incidence of cervical spine (CS) injuries and collar complications in severely injured paediatric trauma patients.

SETTING

Regional Trauma Centre, Children's Hospital.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 365 paediatric severe trauma patients (0-17 years), defined as an Injury Severity Score (ISS)≥12, admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

RESULTS

Clinically significant CS injuries occurred in 5% (n=18/365) of trauma patients, in 9% (n=13/149) of traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients and in 11% (n=6/56) of in-hospital trauma deaths. CS injuries were suspected before imaging in 33% (n=6/18) of patients based on either motor/sensory impairment or shock. CS injuries were deemed unstable in 61% (n=11/18) of patients. Patients with CS injuries had higher ISS, and longer PICU and hospital stays (P<0.05). CS collar complications occurred in 10% of patients, mainly identified by day 6 and consisting of either erythema or ulcers. Patients with CS collar complications were older and more likely to have TBI, lower Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores, longer PICU and hospital stays, and increased days to CS clearance (P<0.05). Three CS X-rays, together with flexion/extension views, were used most frequently for CS clearance.

CONCLUSION

CS injuries were prevalent in severely injured paediatric trauma patients, particularly in those with TBI and in nonsurvivors. CS collar complications were associated with a lower GCS and longer CS clearance times. Attention to CS collar management protocols and earlier CS clearance with computed tomography/magnetic resonance imaging in obtunded patients might reduce CS collar complications.

Endocrine, metabolic, and morphologic alterations of adipose tissue during critical illness

OBJECTIVE

Observational studies report lower mortality in obese than in lean critically ill patients, an association referred to as the "obesity paradox." This may suggest a possible protective role for adipose tissue during severe illness.

DATA SOURCES

Relevant publications were identified based on searches in PubMed and on secondary searches of their bibliographies.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The endocrine functions of adipose tissue might play a role in the adaptation to critical illness. In the acute phase of illness, the anti-inflammatory adiponectin is reduced, whereas proinflammatory cytokine expression in adipose tissue is up-regulated. In the prolonged phase of critical illness, both adiponectin and anti-inflammatory cytokine production are increasing. Studies on the proinflammatory adipokine leptin during critical illness are inconsistent, possibly due to confounders such as gender, body mass index, and feeding. Morphologically, adipose tissue of critically ill patients reveals an increased number of newly differentiated, smaller adipocytes. Accentuated macrophage accumulation showing a phenotypic switch to M2-type suggests an adaptive response to the microenvironment of severe illness. Functionally, adipose tissue of critically ill patients develops an increased ability to store glucose and triglycerides.

CONCLUSIONS

Endocrine, metabolic, and morphologic properties of adipose tissue change during critical illness. These alterations may suggest a possible adaptive, protective role in optimizing chances of survival. More research is needed to understand the exact role of adipose tissue in lean vs. obese critically ill patients, in order to understand how illness-associated alterations contribute to the obesity paradox.

The process of end-of-life care delivery to the families of elderly patients according to the Family Health Strategy

OBJECTIVE: To understand the process of end-of-life care delivery to the families of elderly patients according to a Family Health Strategy (FHS) team, to identify the meanings the team attributes to the experience and to build a theoretical model. METHOD: Symbolic Interactionism and Grounded Theory were applied. Fourteen professionals working in an FHS located in a country town in the state of São Paulo were interviewed. RESULTS: Through comparative analysis, the core category overcoming challenges to assist the family and the elderly during the dying process was identified, and it was composed of the following sub-processes: Identifying situational problems, Planning a new care strategy, Managing the care and Evaluating the care process. CONCLUSION: the team faces difficulties to achieve better performance in attending to the biological and emotional needs of families, seeking to ensure dignity to the elderly at the end of their lives and expand access to healthcare.

[The transition process from the intensive care unit to the ward: a review of the literature]

The optimum transition process from the ICU to the ward is key to avoiding the appearance of anxiety in the patient and family, increase of re-admissions in the ICU with the consequent increase in costs and jeopardization to the patient's safety.

OBJECTIVE

1) To identify, study and give a critical presentation of the existing evidence on how patients, families and nurses experience the transition from ICU to the ward; 2) to analyze the possible interventions available for the development of an optimum transition process.

METHODOLOGY

A review was made of the evidence available in the main databases. In addition, several journals specialized in Intensive Care were reviewed. Studies with a qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach and reviews on the subject with a systematic methodology or narrative reviews were included.

RESULTS

A total of 23 papers were selected for review, 10 of which were qualitative studies, 11 quantitative and two had combined methodology. «Transfer anxiety» was identified after the analysis of these articles as one of the recurring aspects. Discrepancies regarding who should take responsibility for the preparation of the transition process and when it should be performed were also found. In the literature reviewed, several interventions have been proposed to facilitate an optimal transition process such as developing information brochures, creating a profile of practicing nursing liaison between the ICU and the ward and ICU discharge report.

CONCLUSIONS

This review emphasizes the importance of taking into account the perspectives of patients, families and nurses to perform optimal planning of the transition of the patient from the ICU to the ward to ensure their safety.

How death anxiety impacts nurses' caring for patients at the end of life: a review of literature

Nurses are frequently exposed to dying patients and death in the course of their work. This experience makes individuals conscious of their own mortality, often giving rise to anxiety and unease. Nurses who have a strong anxiety about death may be less comfortable providing nursing care for patients at the end of their life. This paper explores the literature on death anxiety and nurses’ attitudes to determine whether fear of death impacts on nurses’ caring for dying patients. Fifteen quantitative studies published between 1990 and 2012 exploring nurses’ own attitudes towards death were critically reviewed. Three key themes identified were: i). nurses’ level of death anxiety; ii). death anxiety and attitudes towards caring for the dying, and iii). death education was necessary for such emotional work. Based on quantitative surveys using valid instruments, results suggested that the level of death anxiety of nurses working in hospitals in general, oncology, renal, hospice care or in community services was not high. Some studies showed an inverse association between nurses’ attitude towards death and their attitude towards caring for dying patients. Younger nurses consistently reported stronger fear of death and more negative attitudes towards end-of-life patient care. Nurses need to be aware of their own beliefs. Studies from several countries showed that a worksite death education program could reduce death anxiety. This offers potential for improving nurses’ caring for patients at the end of their life.

[To go in-depth in the knowledge of the device to control fecal elimination in the critical patient]

OBJECTIVE

To describe the general characteristics of the patient and device use. To know retention balloon pressure (RBP) and related factors. To identify rate of leakage incidence, relocation and perineal damage due to the device (PSD) and related risk factors.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An analytical observational, cross-sectional study conducted in a polyvalent ICU from June-December 2010 was performed. The sample included Flexi-Seal(®) carriers. Variables evaluated were patient and device use characteristics, RBP, leakage and quantity, relocation and reason, PSD, sedoanalgesia infusion, neuromuscular block, patient position, Flexi-Seal type catheter, ventilatory mode (VM), intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), mean intrathoracic pressure (MITP), PEEP, Glasgow, color-aspect, fecal consistency and volume. Significance P<.05.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients were included, 52% male, aged 54±17 with 30 insertion episodes, Flexi-Seal-Signal(®) 33%, 10±8 days permanency, main indication 33% «diarrhea and injured skin»," 30% device removal «intolerance and/or spontaneous expulsion». Median (Me) PGR =40; RI (61-19) cmH2O. Factors associated to higher PGR: SCI absence, prone-decubitus position, leakage, relocation, conventional Flexi-Seal(®), MV, lower PEEP and IMP, Color-aspect, higher MITP. Leakage, relocation and PSD incidence density 43, 30 and 2 cases/100 days of catheter, respectively. Leakage and relocation risk factors: higher PGR, Glasgow and fecal volume, lower MITP, MV, assisted-spontaneous mode OR 2.5 CI (1.6-3.8) and OR 1.7(1.1-2.7), absence SCI OR 3.3 (2.2-5.1) and OR 2.4(1.5-3.8), absence neuromuscular block OR 2.4 (1.4-3.9) and OR 1.8 (1.1-3.1), Flexi-Seal(®) conventional OR 2.7(1.7-4.1) and OR 2 (1.2-3.3), respectively. Leakage risk factors: color-aspect, supine position, lower IMP and PEEP.

CONCLUSIONS

Monitoring RBP may alert us about leakage presence and relocation need. Knowing associated risk factors to RBP, leakage and relocation would help to develop strategies to reduce their high incidence rate such as decreasing RBP by reducing inflated volume.

Validação Concorrente de Escores de Enfermagem (NEMS e TISS-28) em terapia intensiva pediátrica

OBJETIVO: Examinar a validade concorrente do escore Nine Equivalents of Nursing Manpower Use Score (NEMS) em comparação ao Therapeutic Intervention Scoring System-28 (TISS-28) em uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Pediátrica (UTIP). MÉTODOS: Estudo de coorte prospectivo observacional, realizado na UTIP de um hospital universitário brasileiro, no período de dois anos, com uma amostra de 816 pacientes. Foram realizadas 7.702 observações de cada um dos escores. RESULTADOS: A média da pontuação máxima do NEMS foi 26,6±9,2 e do TISS-28 21,3±8,2. Em todas as médias, o TISS-28 foi inferior ao NEMS (p<0,001). Houve uma boa correlação entre eles (r²=0,704 para todas as observações). A concordância entre o TISS-28 e o NEMS foi boa, apresentando apenas 6,2% de diferença entre os escores. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados mostraram boa correlação e concordância entre o TISS-28 e o NEMS, permitindo validar o NEMS nessa população de pacientes pediátricos.

[Quality of sleep in patients hospitalized in an intensive care unit]

INTRODUCTION

Trouble sleeping is common in the elderly population and is attributed to changes that aging brings in the sleep architecture and circadian rhythm. The prevalence of insomnia shows a marked increase with advancing age, in a proportion of 14 to 32% among those over 65 years. If we add these physiological changes of sleep with those found in patients admitted to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), the problem worsens. The prevalence of these disorders in these units is from 22 - 61%. Sleep deprivation may contribute to worsening of the patients. The main objective is to describe the quality of sleep of patients admitted to the Coronary ICU of the Hospital Miguel Servet and the environmental factors that contribute to these disorders.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 75 conscious and oriented patients in the Coronary ICU Hospital Miguel Servet were included. Data was collected between February 17 and April 30, 2011. The subjects were asked to state if they had slept well by means of a survey and to score the environmental factors that may have bothered them.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Most patients said they had slept well (66.7%). Noise was the environmental factor that bothered them most. In analyzing the different noises, patients identified hearing people talking as being the most annoying.

CONCLUSION

Changes must be implemented in the unit that would favor restful sleep.

[Perception of the critical patient on nursing cares: an approach to the concept of satisfaction]

INTRODUCTION

Level of satisfaction is a key indicator of quality of care. There are many tools that measure satisfaction with nursing care, however they do not respond to the reality of the critical care patient or to our context.

OBJECTIVES

To define and to identify the dimensions of the satisfaction of patients admitted to the intensive care unit of a tertiary hospital with nursing cares and to define and identify the dimensions of the concept of satisfaction from their point of view.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A qualitative research study was conducted according to the Grounded Theory Method in three Intensive Care Units with 34 individual boxes, with theoretical sampling. Nineteen patients remained after data saturation sampling. Data collection was obtained through recorded in-depth interviews and field logbook. Contents analysis was made according to the Grounded Theory. Guba and Lincoln rigor's criteria were followed. There was a favorable report from the Hospital's Ethics Committee and informed consent was obtained from the patients.

RESULTS

Four categories were found: The definition and dimensions of the satisfaction concept, expectations and life experiences. The participants included the following dimensions in their satisfaction definition: professional competences, human, technical and continuous cares. The combination of these elements produces feelings of security, calmness, being monitored, feeling like a person, perceiving a close relationship and trustfulness with the nurse who performs the individualized cares.

CONCLUSIONS

The definition and dimensions of satisfaction concept from the patient's point of view show the important aspects of the person and also clarify their dimensions, allowing the construction of tools more in line with the context and real perception.

Ethical difficulties in nursing, educational needs and attitudes about using ethics resources

Ethical difficulties arise in healthcare practices. However, despite extensive research findings that demonstrate that most nurses are involved in recurrent ethical problems, institutions are not always able to effectively support nursing care professionals. The limited availability of ethics consultation services and traditional nursing training fails to meet the frequent and strong requests by health workers to support their ethical dilemmas. A questionnaire was administered to 374 nurses attending a specialist training and a lifetime learning programme in Italy. The respondents reported a high frequency of ethically sensitive situations, and they described the poor development of ethics support and a scarcity of ethics training programmes. The results suggest the importance of promoting ethics services that include consultation and ethics training. A need for systematic ethics educational activities was identified for improving the capacity of nurses to manage ethical issues in patient care.

Impact of oral care with versus without toothbrushing on the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

INTRODUCTION

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) remains a common hazardous complication in mechanically ventilated patients and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials to assess the effect of toothbrushing as a component of oral care on the prevention of VAP in adult critically ill patients.

METHODS

A systematic literature search of PubMed and Embase (up to April 2012) was conducted. Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials of mechanically ventilated adult patients receiving oral care with toothbrushing. Relative risks (RRs), weighted mean differences (WMDs), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated and heterogeneity was assessed with the I(2) test.

RESULTS

Four studies with a total of 828 patients met the inclusion criteria. Toothbrushing did not significantly reduce the incidence of VAP (RR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.50 to 1.21) and intensive care unit mortality (RR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.70 to 1.10). Toothbrushing was not associated with a statistically significant reduction in duration of mechanical ventilation (WMD, -0.88 days; 95% CI, -2.58 to 0.82), length of intensive care unit stay (WMD, -1.48 days; 95% CI, -3.40 to 0.45), antibiotic-free day (WMD, -0.52 days; 95% CI, -2.82 to 1.79), or mechanical ventilation-free day (WMD, -0.43 days; 95% CI, -1.23 to 0.36).

CONCLUSIONS

Oral care with toothbrushing versus without toothbrushing does not significantly reduce the incidence of VAP and alter other important clinical outcomes in mechanically ventilated patients. However, the results should be interpreted cautiously since relevant evidence is still limited, although accumulating. Further large-scale, well-designed randomized controlled trials are urgently needed.

[Benefits of flexible visitation in the intensive care units for the family of critical patients]

AIM

To identify, analyze and summarize the main effects that may be related to flexible visitation policies for the relatives of critically ill adults.

METHOD

A review of the literature was conducted in the following databases: PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CUIDEN. Thematic content analysis was used to evaluate selected articles.

RESULTS

Fifteen articles were included in this review. Four main themes emerged from the thematic content analysis. Themes included the main effects of flexible visitation policies for the family of the critical patients such as: improvement of satisfaction, reduction of anxiety and stress, satisfaction regarding their own family needs, and the role of the family in the patient's care.

CONCLUSION

According to the existing evidence, flexible visitation policies appear to be both beneficial and decisive. It seems to be necessary to favor the participation of the family in the care of the intensive patient as well as the acquisition of a more prominent role the visitation context and in their relationship with the patient.

Euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide

The aim of this study is to assess the knowledge, attitudes and experiences of Spanish nurses in relation to euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. In an online questionnaire completed by 390 nurses from Andalusia, 59.1% adequately identified a euthanasia situation and 64.1% a situation involving physician-assisted suicide. Around 69% were aware that both practices were illegal in Spain, while 21.4% had received requests for euthanasia and a further 7.8% for assisted suicide. A total of 22.6% believed that cases of euthanasia had occurred in Spain and 11.4% believed the same for assisted suicide. There was greater support (70%) for legalisation of euthanasia than for assisted suicide (65%), combined with a greater predisposition towards carrying out euthanasia (54%), if it were to be legalised, than participating in assisted suicide (47.3%). Nurses in Andalusia should be offered more education about issues pertaining to the end of life, and extensive research into this area should be undertaken.

[Pressure ulcers in the critical patient: detection of risk factors]

INTRODUCTION

Patients admitted to intensive care units (ICU) are more vulnerable to the appearance of pressure ulcers. This is the reason why the highest rates of pressure ulcers (PU) incidence and prevalence are found in the ICU. This study has aimed to identify risk factors related to the appearance of PU in critically ill patients.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

This was a prospective and observational study that included all patients admitted for more than 24 h from October 2009 to June 2010. Dependent variable: Appearance of PU.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

APACHE II score, risk assessment score (EMINA), body mass index (BMI), support surface, nutrition, norepineprhine, sedation and care support devices. Data analyses: Kaplan-Meyer survival and Cox regression analysis. Significance p < 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 236 patients were included. A significant association was found to BMI≥30 (RR: 2.51), EMINA >10 (RR: 2.96), hyperproteic nutrition (RR: 0.946), turning (RR: 0.88), sedation (RR: 0.95), polyurethane nasogastric feeding tube (RR: 0.94), dynamic support surface (RR:0.88). Significant association of p < 0.1 for Norepinephrine (RR: 2.34).

CONCLUSIONS

BMI≥ 30, EMINA and norepinephrine are predictive factors of risk for PU development. Sedation days, dynamic support surfaces, hyperproteic nutrition, turning, and polyurethane nasogastric feeding tube were established as protective factors against PU.

Assessment of a training programme for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia

BACKGROUND

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is the most frequent nosocomial infection in intensive care units (ICUs). Most published studies have analysed nurses' theoretical knowledge about a specific procedure; however, the transfer of this knowledge to the practice has received little attention.

AIM

To assess the impact of training session on nurses' knowledge regarding VAP, compliance with VAP preventive measures, VAP incidence and determining whether nursing workload affects compliance.

METHOD

A prospective, quasiexperimental, pre- and post-study of the nursing team in a 16-bed medical/surgical ICU. Pre-intervention phase: a questionnaire to assess nurses' knowledge of VAP prevention measures, direct observation and review of clinical records to assess compliance. Intervention phase: eight training sessions for nurses. The post-intervention phase mirrored the pre-intervention phase.

FINDINGS

Nurses answered more questions correctly on the post-intervention questionnaire than on the pre-intervention (17·87 ± 2·69 versus 15·91 ± 2·68, p = 0·002). Compliance with the following measures was better during the post-intervention period (p = 0·001): use of the smallest possible nasogastric tube, controlled aspiration of subglottic secretions and endotracheal tube cuff pressure, use of oral chlorhexidine and recording the endotracheal tube fixation number. VAP incidence remained unchanged throughout the study. However, a trend towards lower incidence of late (>4 days after intubation) VAP was observed (4·6 versus 3·1 episodes/1000 ventilation days, p = 0·37).

CONCLUSION

The programme improved both knowledge of and compliance with VAP preventive measures, although improved knowledge did not always result in improved compliance.

Blood loss from tests in patients with gastrointestinal diseases: An analysis of 218 cases

AIM: To investigate the reasons for blood loss from tests in patients with gastrointestinal diseases and to explore countermeasures against such condition.

METHODS: Data were obtained from hospital LIS, including hospital stay, total blood loss, average daily blood loss, blood loss ratio between different tests, average volume collected for blood gas analysis.

RESULTS: The average daily blood loss in our patients was 7.63 mL. The average daily blood loss was 8.57 mL in the blood culture group and 5.58 mL in the non-blood culture group, with a significant difference between the two groups.

CONCLUSION: Attention should be paid to blood loss in patients undergoing a blood culture test. Improvement of the functions of LIS, standard operation, and reasonable use of ordinary syringe for blood collection could help reduce blood loss from tests.

[NEMS: a new predictor of mortality in the critical patient?]

Numerical scales are commonly used in intensive care units to predict hospital mortality and to assess the therapeutic effort and care that critically ill patients require. The aim of this work was to study whether the NEMS value can be used as a predictor of mortality, comparing it with the APACHE II. A prospective study in a 24 intensive care unit beds was conducted. The APACHE II and NEMS values were stratified into three levels. Demographic data and the first 24 hours values of APACHE II and NEMS scales were collected. A total of 1257 patients were included, 16.4% of whom died. 69.6% were surgical; median stay was 2 days (1-4). Median age was 66 years (50-77), 59.3% were men. The median APACHE II and NEMS for the living and the dead in the subsequent course was 10 (6-20) versus 22.5 (17.25 to 29) (p <0.001) and 24 (18-29) versus 34 (25 to 39.7) (p<0.001) respectively. The correlation between both scales was rho=0.457 (p<0.01). Logistic regression controlled for age, sex and APACHE II showed an OR of 3.1 (95% CI: 1.5-6.6) only for high NEMS, compared to the lowest level. According to the results NEMS should not be used as a predictor of mortality, although the risk of death increases by three times with high NEMS.

Discrepancies between capillary glucose measurements and traditional laboratory assessments in both shock and non-shock states after trauma

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to analyze the accuracy of capillary blood glucose (CBG) against laboratory blood glucose (LBG) in critically ill trauma patients during the shock state.

METHODS

All critically ill trauma patients admitted to the Surgical Intensive Care Unit at the Los Angeles County + University of Southern California Medical Center requiring blood glucose monitoring from January 2007 to December 2008 were included. Accuracy of CBG was compared against LBG during shock and non-shock states. Shock was defined as either systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg or mean arterial pressure <70 mm Hg and the need for vasopressor therapy. The Bland-Altman method was used to determine the agreement between CBG and LBG during shock and non-shock states. CBG values were considered to disagree significantly with LBG values when the difference exceeded 15%.

RESULTS

During the 2-y study period, a total of 1215 patients were admitted to the Surgical Intensive Care Unit. Overall, the mean age was 38.4 ± 20.9 y, 79.6% (967) were male, and 75.0% (911) sustained blunt trauma. A total of 1935 paired samples of CBG and LBG were included in this analysis (367 during shock and 1568 during non-shock). During shock, the mean difference between CBG and LBG levels was 13.4 mg/dL (95% CI, -15.4 to 42.2 mg/dL), and the limits of agreement were -27.1 and 53.9 mg/dL. A total of 136 CBG values (37.1%) differed from the LBG values by more than 15%. During non-shock, the mean difference between CBG and LBG levels was 12.6 mg/dL (95% CI, -19.9 to 32.5 mg/dL), and the limits of agreement were -20.6 and 45.8 mg/dL. A total of 639 CGB values (40.8%) differed from the LBG values by more than 15%. Agreement was lowest among hypoglycemic readings in both shock and non-shock states.

CONCLUSION

There is poor correlation between the capillary and laboratory glucose values in both shock and non-shock states.

Culture and end of life care: a scoping exercise in seven European countries

AIM

Culture is becoming increasingly important in relation to end of life (EoL) care in a context of globalization, migration and European integration. We explore and compare socio-cultural issues that shape EoL care in seven European countries and critically appraise the existing research evidence on cultural issues in EoL care generated in the different countries.

METHODS

We scoped the literature for Germany, Norway, Belgium, The Netherlands, Spain, Italy and Portugal, carrying out electronic searches in 16 international and country-specific databases and handsearches in 17 journals, bibliographies of relevant papers and webpages. We analysed the literature which was unearthed, in its entirety and by type (reviews, original studies, opinion pieces) and conducted quantitative analyses for each country and across countries. Qualitative techniques generated themes and sub-themes.

RESULTS

A total of 868 papers were reviewed. The following themes facilitated cross-country comparison: setting, caregivers, communication, medical EoL decisions, minority ethnic groups, and knowledge, attitudes and values of death and care. The frequencies of themes varied considerably between countries. Sub-themes reflected issues characteristic for specific countries (e.g. culture-specific disclosure in the southern European countries). The work from the seven European countries concentrates on cultural traditions and identities, and there was almost no evidence on ethnic minorities.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review is the first comparative exploration of the cultural differences in the understanding of EoL care in these countries. The diverse body of evidence that was identified on socio-cultural issues in EoL care, reflects clearly distinguishable national cultures of EoL care, with differences in meaning, priorities, and expertise in each country. The diverse ways that EoL care is understood and practised forms a necessary part of what constitutes best evidence for the improvement of EoL care in the future.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia with or without toothbrushing: a randomized controlled trial

Certain guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) recommend oral care with chlorhexidine, but none refer to the use of a toothbrush for oral hygiene. The role of toothbrush use has received scant attention. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare the incidence of VAP in critical care patients receiving oral care with and without manual brushing of the teeth. This was a randomized clinical trial developed in a 24-bed medical-surgical intensive care unit (ICU). Patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation for than 24 h were included. Patients were randomly assigned to receive oral care with or without toothbrushing. All patients received oral care with 0.12 % chlorhexidine digluconate. Tracheal aspirate samples were obtained during endotracheal intubation, then twice a week, and, finally, on extubation. There were no significant differences between the two groups of patients in the baseline characteristics. We found no statistically significant differences between the groups regarding the incidence of VAP (21 of 217 [9.7 %] with toothbrushing vs. 24 of 219 [11.0 %] without toothbrushing; odds ratio [OR] = 0.87, 95 % confidence interval [CI] = 0.469-1.615; p = 0.75). Adding manual toothbrushing to chlorhexidine oral care does not help to prevent VAP in critical care patients on mechanical ventilation.

Tale of two sites: capillary versus arterial blood glucose testing in the operating room

INTRODUCTION

Pre- and intraoperative glycemic control has been identified as a putative target to improve outcomes of surgical patients. Glycemic control requires frequent monitoring of blood glucose levels with appropriate adjustments. However, monitoring standards have been called into question, especially in cases in which capillary samples are used. Point-of-care testing (POCT) using capillary samples and glucometers has been noted to give relatively accurate results for critically ill patients. However, the package inserts of most glucometers warn that they should not be used for patients in shock. This has led clinicians to doubt their accuracy in the operating room. The accuracy of capillary samples when tested in patients undergoing surgical procedures has not been proven. This study aims to determine the accuracy of intraoperative blood glucose values using capillary samples relative to arterial samples.

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted by collecting paired capillary and arterial samples of patients undergoing major operations at a tertiary medical center from August 2009 to May 2011. Subjects were a convenience sample of patients who had arterial lines and needed glucose testing while undergoing the procedure. Precision Xceed Pro (Abbott) handheld glucometers were used to obtain the blood glucose values. Our primary outcome of interest was the degree of correlation between capillary and arterial blood glucose values or the degree to which arterial glucose levels can be predicted by capillary glucose samples. We used linear regression and the Student t tests for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Seventy-two-paired samples were collected. Of the cases, 54% were major abdominal operations, whereas 24% were vascular operations. The mean values ± standard deviation for glucose levels were 146 ± 35 mg/dL (capillary) and 147 ± 36 mg/dL (arterial). The mean time ± standard deviation between the collection of both samples was 3.5 ± 1.3 minutes. The regression coefficient showed a strong positive correlation of .91 between capillary glucose values and arterial values (P < .001) although correlation was less stringent at the hyperglycemic range of values. The R(2) statistic was 84%. Differences in values between capillary and arterial samples would not have altered the diagnosis of hypo- and hyperglycemia using typical thresholds.

CONCLUSIONS

Capillary samples collected intraoperatively are strongly correlated with arterial samples. Glucose monitoring in the operating room can be safely performed by collecting capillary samples for POCT. However, clinicians should still be cautious when interpreting glucose levels that are high, either by repeating the blood glucose test or by having samples sent to the laboratory.

[The meaning of standardized language NANDA-NIC-NOC intensive care nurses in Madrid: a phenomenological approach]

Nursing standardized language is a tool that makes it possible to integrate a theoretical framework of problem identification, interventions and outcomes in care. Its use in the difference care settings is varied. In the case of intensive care units, it is necessary to study the implications that integration of this language would have in nursing area.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the meaning of standardized NANDA-NIC-NOC language for the nurses working in Intensive Care Units in Madrid.

METHOD

A phenomenological qualitative study was conducted.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

ICU in Madrid of nurses with one year or more experience at the time of the study who were working in the ICU.

SAMPLE

Purposive and Snowball sampling technique.

DATA COLLECTION

Unstructured interviews, personal documents (letters, diaries). Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim for later analysis.

ANALYSIS

Giorgi proposal. Identifying meaning units, groups of common senses and themes.

RESULTS

Three themes made up the meaning of standardized language in intensive care nursing. "Living integrating 2 sides of the same coin", "living a conceptual imposition", and "living a development opportunity and professional autonomy".

CONCLUSIONS

There is a gap in the theory of language and its clinical application. Nurses report feeling imposition of a specific conceptual language. This creates the construction of a hierarchy between nurses based on the use of NANDA-NIC-NOC. Even so, the standardized language is experienced as a professional development opportunity.

[Limiting and facilitating factors of changes in the care of families of the critically ill patient]

INTRODUCTION

Participatory action research (PAR) was conducted in an intensive care unit (UCI), with the general purpose of fostering change in clinical practice so as to improve the care offered to families of critically ill patients. As a result of this process, four change-related initiatives were introduced. One specific additional objective was to explore how the unit's background context limited or facilitated change. This paper presents findings based on this objective.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Qualitative methodology.

DESIGN

Participatory-action research (PAR). DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES: 11 discussion groups incorporating professionals, 5 in-depth interviews with professionals, field diaries kept by the participants, and field diary kept by the lead researcher. Eleven professionals took part in the discussion groups (each one conveyed information made known to them by 3-5 colleagues), 5 professionals were involved in the interviews, and 11 professionals filled in a field diary. A content analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Factors limiting change included: 1) Not acknowledging the legitimacy of scientific evidence regarding the families of critically ill patients; 2) Imbalanced power relationships among the members of multi-disciplinary teams; 3) Nurses' lack of involvement in information flow; 4) The organization of time and physical space in the unit. Factors facilitating change: 1) A sense of individual and shared commitment; 2) Leadership in day-to-day matters; 3) A process based on reflection.

CONCLUSIONS

A process of participatory action research can lead to change in clinical practice, although this is complex and requires substantial input in terms of personal energy. Contextual factors limiting this change are related to the actual structure of the unit, while factors facilitating it are circumstantial ones and are dependent upon individual people. In this sense, professionals working at the bedside are capable of introducing changes to the context in which they work.

National survey of central venous catheter flushing in the intensive care unit

BACKGROUND

Evidence is needed on the best solution for flushing central venous catheters.

OBJECTIVE

To understand current flushing practices for short-term central venous catheters among critical care nurses before implementation of a randomized, controlled trial comparing physiological saline with heparin solution for flushing to maintain catheter patency.

METHODS

A 6-item survey including demographic data was mailed to 2000 practicing critical care nurses in the United States. An additional 316 surveys were completed at the annual conference of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses.

RESULTS

Most (71.5%) of the 632 respondents who completed the survey were staff nurses. Most respondents (64.6%; 95% CI, 60.86%-68.34%) reported using physiological saline exclusively to flush central venous catheters and maintain patency. For heparin-containing solutions, the concentration and volume used varied. The most commonly reported volumes for flushing were 10 mL for saline (63%; 95% CI, 59.18%-66.82%) and 3 mL for heparin (50.2%; 95% CI, 43.5%-56.9%).

CONCLUSION

Flushing practices for central venous catheters vary widely. A randomized controlled trial is needed to determine the optimal flushing solution to maintain short-term patency.

Circulação extracorpórea e complicações no período pós-operatório imediato de cirurgias cardíacas

OBJETIVO: Comparar a frequência de complicações apresentadas pelos pacientes, durante o pós-operatório imediato (POI), de cirurgias cardíacas de acordo com o tempo de circulação extra-corpórea (CEC). MÉTODOS: Estudo de natureza quantitativa, descritivo e correlacional com 83 pacientes adultos divididos em dois grupos de acordo com o tempo de CEC. RESULTADOS: Do total de pacientes, 44 (53%) tiveram o tempo de duração da CEC de até 85 minutos e 39 (47 %) tiveram o tempo acima de 85 minutos. As complicações foram comuns para ambos os grupos, sendo as mais frequentes dor e oligúria. No entanto, hemotórax, pneumotórax e infarto agudo do miocárdio ocorreram apenas no grupo com maior tempo de CEC. CONCLUSÃO: A maioria das complicações ocorridas no POI apresentou frequencia semelhante para os pacientes, independente do tempo de CEC.

Carga de trabalho de enfermagem em Unidade de Terapia Intensiva de um hospital de ensino

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a carga de trabalho de enfermagem em uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI) - adulto e descrever o perfil dos pacientes, nela, internados. MÉTODOS: estudo descritivo com o uso do Nursing Activities Score - NAS durante 33 dias em uma UTI com capacidade para 18 leitos. RESULTADOS: Foram 574 observações, obtidas do registro de 107 pacientes e a média da pontuação do NAS foi de 62,2%. CONCLUSÃO: O NAS constitui-se em um importante instrumento para mensurar a carga de trabalho de enfermagem em UTI, uma vez que contempla diversas atividades de enfermagem realizadas no dia a dia da assistência. Ressalta-se a importância de tornar sua aplicação parte do cotidiano do enfermeiro.

Palliative care in the home: perceptions of nurses in the Family Health Strategy

OBJECTIVE: To understand the perception of nurses from the Family Health Strategy in relation to palliative care in the home. METHODS: A descriptive, exploratory study with a qualitative approach conducted with nine nurses from the Family Health Strategy of the municipality of Lavras - MG. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and data were subjected to content analysis. RESULTS: The various dimensions of care in the home context were identified, along with the performance and limitations of nurses in the care of the patient and his family at end of life. The capacity to establish a bond, by the proximity to people who receive their care, is a remarkable point of the action of these nurses with patients and families in end of life situations. CONCLUSION: The nurses consider the patient and his family as the unit of care, they have the opportunity to share solidarity, experiences and learning, not only from a professional standpoint, but above all, from a human one.

[Effects of a pre-transplant educational program on the improvement of knowledge at hospital discharge after a liver transplant]

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of an educational program implemented before liver transplant on improving understanding at hospital discharge after the transplant and examine the contribution of different demographic and clinical variables on the level of knowledge.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental study with a non-equivalent control group undertaken at the Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic and Transplant Unit of Carlos Haya Regional University Hospital, Malaga, Spain. Sampling was consecutive (non-probabilistic), with a sample size of 31 patients for each group. An educational program was designed, encompassing the following Nurse Intervention Classification (NIC): Teaching: disease process; Teaching: prescribed diet; Education: prescription drugs; Protection against infection; Management of Hyperglycaemia; Management of Hypoglycaemia. For the outcome variable, a knowledge questionnaire was designed, with a total score range between 5-30 points, structured according to 6 indicators for Nurse Outcomes Classification (NOC): Description of the disease process, Description of the medication prescribed, Description of the prescribed diet, Description of self-care responsibilities, Description of practices that reduce transmission, Identification of actions to take in relation to blood glucose.

RESULTS

The study included 61 patients, 33 for the control group and 28 for the intervention group. The mean score on the questionnaire of the intervention group was 20.25 ± 2.8 and that of the control group 13.06 ± 3.51 points. The difference between the two groups was 7.19 (95% CI: 5.73-8.64; P<.01). The analysis of the indicators showed that there were significant differences between the study groups, except for the indicator identification of actions to take in relation to blood glucose. No demographic or clinical variable (sex, education level, primary caregiver, waiting list time, time in hospital unit, hospital stay and days since the last talk before the transplant (only in intervention group)) was significantly associated with level of knowledge.

CONCLUSION

This educational program conducted at Carlos Haya hospital in patients on the liver transplant waiting list improved their knowledge after their transplant.

Carga de trabalho de enfermagem em unidade de terapia intensiva de cardiologia e fatores clínicos associados

O estudo objetivou identificar a carga de trabalho de enfermagem em unidade de Terapia Intensiva de Cardiologia e verificar a associação dessa variável com características demográficas e clínicas dos pacientes. A amostra foi de 100 pacientes internados no período de agosto a setembro de 2006, na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Cardiológica de um hospital privado, do Município de São Paulo. O Nursing Activities Score, o Symplified Acute Physiologic ScoreII e o Logistic Organ Disfunction System foram utilizados para medir a carga de trabalho de enfermagem, a gravidade e a disfunção orgânica, respectivamente. A carga de trabalho de enfermagem foi de 66,60%, equivalente a 5,30 horas de trabalho, em um turno de oito horas. À exceção do tempo de permanência na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva, que apresentou moderada correlação com a carga de trabalho, não houve associação com as demais variáveis analisadas. Recomenda-se a ampliação da amostra para conclusões generalizáveis.