Antiarthritic effect of bee venom: Inhibition of inflammation mediator generation by suppression of NF-?B through interaction with the p50 subunit

Melittin protein inhibits the proliferation of MG63 cells by activating inositol-requiring protein-1α and X-box binding protein 1-mediated apoptosis

The aim of the present study was to explore the pro-apoptotic effect and specific mechanism of action of melittin (MEL) in humans. The effects of MEL on apoptosis in osteosarcoma and fetal osteoblast cells were investigated, and the mechanism that induced MG63 cell growth was also explored. The effects of MEL on cell proliferation were detected by a 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide analysis. Apoptosis was detected by flow cytometric analysis. MEL protein, inositol-requiring protein-1 (IRE-α), phosphorylated-protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase, spliced X-box-1 (XBP1), eukaryotic translation initiation factor-2α, cleaved activating transcription factor-6, caspase-12 and C/EBP homology protein (CHOP) were detected in three groups and two cell lines by western blot analysis. The results indicated that the expression or incubation of MEL in the MG63 cells triggered apoptosis and the inhibition of proliferation. One protein from the ER stress unfolded protein response pathway, IRE-α, was involved in the MEL-induced apoptosis in MG63 cells. Furthermore, spliced XBP1 protein was significantly increased in the MEL peptide incubated and MEL expressing groups of MG63 cells. Furthermore, CHOP protein expression was activated in MG63 cells following being incubated with or expressing MEL. In conclusion, MEL serves as an effective factor that inhibits the proliferation of MG63 cells via activating the ER stress-mediated apoptosis pathway. This activation is triggered by the IRE-α pathway mediated by inducing CHOP protein expression.

Co-culture with NK-92MI cells enhanced the anti-cancer effect of bee venom on NSCLC cells by inactivation of NF-κB

In the present study we experimented on a multimodal therapeutic approach, such as combining chemotherapy agent (Bee venom) with cellular (NK-92MI) immunotherapy. Previously bee venom has been found to show anti-cancer effect in various cancer cell lines. In lung cancer cells bee venom showed an IC(50) value of 3 μg/ml in both cell lines. The co-culture of NK-92MI cell lines with lung cancer cells also show a decrease in viability upto 50 % at 48 h time point. Hence we used bee venom treated NK-92MI cells to co-culture with NSCLC cells and found that there is a further decrease in cell viability upto 70 and 75 % in A549 and NCI-H460 cell lines respectively. We further investigated the expression of various apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins and found that Bax, cleaved caspase-3 and -8 were increasing where as Bcl-2 and cIAP-2 was decreasing. The expression of various death receptor proteins like DR3, DR6 and Fas was also increasing. Concomitantly the expression of various death receptor ligands (TNFalpha, Apo3L and FasL) was also increasing of NK-92MI cells after co-culture. Further the DNA binding activity and luciferase activity of NF-κB was also inhibited after co-culture with bee venom treated NK-92MI cell lines. The knock down of death receptors with si-RNA has reversed the decrease in cell viability and NF-κB activity after co-culture with bee venom treated NK-92MI cells. Thus this new approach can enhance the anti-cancer effect of bee venom at a much lower concentration.

Acute Dermal Toxicity Study of Bee Venom (Apis mellifera L.) in Rats

Bee venom (Apis mellifera L. BV) has been used as a cosmetic ingredient for anti-ageing, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial functions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute toxicity after a single dermal administration of BV, BV was administered to 2 groups of Sprague-Dawley (SD) male and female rats (5 animals/group) at doses of 0 and 1,500 mg/kg body weight (BW). Mortality, clinical signs, body weight changes and gross findings were continually monitored for 15 days following the single dose. There were no unscheduled deaths in any groups during the study period. No BV related clinical signs and body weight changes were observed in any groups during the study period. There were no abnormal gross findings at necropsy on day 15 after the treatment. On the basis of the above results, it was concluded that there were no treatment-related effect on mortality, clinical signs, body weight changes and gross findings in SD rats treated with a single dermal dose of BV at dose of 1,500 mg/kg BW. Therefore, the approximate lethal dose of BV was considered to be over 1,500 mg/kg/day for both sexes of rats. BV may provide a developmental basis for a cosmetic ingredient or external application for topical uses.

Skin Sensitization Study of Bee Venom (Apis mellifera L.) in Guinea Pigs

Bee venom (Apis mellifera L., BV) has been used as a cosmetic ingredient for antiaging, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial functions. The aim of this study was to access the skin sensitization of BV, a Buehler test was conducted fifty healthy male Hartley guinea pigs with three groups; Group G1 (BVsensitization group, 20 animals), group G2 (the positive control-sensitization group, 20 animals), and group G3 (the ethyl alcohol-sensitization group, 10 animals). The exposure on the left flank for induction was repeated three times at intervals of one week. Two weeks after the last induction, the challenge was performed on the right flank. No treatment-related clinical signs or body weight changes were observed during the study period. The average skin reaction evaluated by erythema and edema on the challenge sites and sensitization rate in the BV-sensitization group at 30 hours were 0.0 and 0%, respectively, which are substantially low compared with in positive control group (average skin reaction: 0.55, sensitization rate: 40%) and identical with in vehicle control group, representing a weak sensitizing potential. The average skin reaction and sensitization rate observed at 54 hours were 0.0 and 0% in the BV-sensitization group, respectively, and 0.25 and 20% in the positive control group, respectively. It was concluded that BV classified to Grade I, induced no sensitization when tested in guinea pigs and may provide a developmental basis for a cosmetic ingredient or external application for topical uses.

Targeting TNF-α and NF-κB activation by bee venom: role in suppressing adjuvant induced arthritis and methotrexate hepatotoxicity in rats

Low dose methotrexate is the cornerstone for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. One of its major drawbacks is hepatotoxicity, resulting in poor compliance of therapy. Dissatisfied arthritis patients are likely to seek the option of complementary and alternative medicine such as bee venom. The combination of natural products with modern medicine poses the possibility of potential interaction between the two groups and needs investigation. The present study was aimed to investigate the modulatory effect of bee venom acupuncture on efficacy, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics and tissue disposition of methotrexate. Complete Freund's adjuvant induced arthritic rats were treated for 3 weeks with methotrexate and/or bee venom. Arthritic score, ankle diameter, paw volume and tissue expression of NF-κB and TNF-α were determined to assess anti-arthritic effects, while anti-nociceptive effects were assessed by gait score and thermal hyperalgesia. Methotrexate toxicity was assessed by measuring serum TNF-α, liver enzymes and expression of NF-κB in liver. Combination therapy of bee venom with methotrexate significantly improved arthritic parameters and analgesic effect as compared to methotrexate alone. Bee venom ameliorated serum TNF-α and liver enzymes elevations as well as over expression of NF-κB in liver induced by methotrexate. Histological examination supported the results. And for the first time bee venom acupuncture was approved to increase methotrexate bioavailability with a significant decrease in its elimination.

CONCLUSION

bee venom potentiates the anti-arthritic effects of methotrexate, possibly by increasing its bioavailability. Also, it provides a potent anti-nociceptive effect. Furthermore, bee venom protects against methotrexate induced hepatotoxicity mostly due to its inhibitory effect on TNF-α and NF-κB.

Clinical effectiveness of bee venom acupuncture and physiotherapy in the treatment of adhesive capsulitis: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Bee venom acupuncture (BVA) has been used in the treatment of adhesive capsulitis (AC) in the clinical field. This study aimed to investigate whether the addition of BVA to physiotherapy (PT) would be more effective in the management of AC, and whether BVA would have a dose-dependent effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty-eight patients diagnosed with AC were recruited into 3 groups; BV 1 (1:10,000 BVA plus PT), BV 2 (1:30,000 BVA plus PT), and group 3 (normal saline (NS) injection, as a control, plus PT). PT was composed of 15 minutes of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), transcutaneous infrared thermotherapy (TDP), and manual PT. Treatments were given in 16 sessions within 2 months. Shoulder pain and disability index (SPADI), pain visual analogue scale (VAS), and 3) active/passive range of motion (ROM) were measured before treatment and at 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks after the treatment.

RESULTS

All 3 groups showed statistically significant improvements in SPADI, pain VAS scores, and active/passive ROM. The BV 1 group showed significantly better outcomes in SPADI at 8 and 12 weeks, in pain VAS (at rest) at 8 weeks, and in pain VAS (during exercise) at 12 weeks than the NS group. No significant differences were found in active/passive ROM among all the groups.

CONCLUSION

BVA in combination with PT can be more effective in improving pain and function than PT alone in AC. However, the effectiveness of BVA was not shown in a dose-dependent manner.

Melittin peptide kills Trypanosoma cruzi parasites by inducing different cell death pathways

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are components of the innate immune response that represent desirable alternatives to conventional pharmaceuticals, as they have a fast mode of action, a low likelihood of resistance development and can act in conjunction with existing drug regimens. AMPs exhibit strong inhibitory activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, viruses, metazoans and other parasites, such as the protozoan Leishmania. Melittin is a naturally occurring AMP, which comprises 40-50% of the dry weight of Apis mellifera venom. Our group has recently shown that crude A. mellifera venom is lethal to Trypanosoma cruzi, the Chagas disease etiologic agent, and generates a variety of cell death phenotypes among treated parasites. Here, we demonstrate that the melittin affected all of T. cruzi developmental forms, including the intracellular amastigotes. The ultrastructural changes induced by melittin suggested the occurrence of different programmed cell death pathways, as was observed in A. mellifera-treated parasites. Autophagic cell death appeared to be the main death mechanism in epimastigotes. In contrast, melittin-treated trypomastigotes appeared to be dying via an apoptotic mechanism. Our findings confirm the great potential of AMPs, including melittin, as a potential source of new drugs for the treatment of neglected diseases, such as Chagas disease.

Apis mellifera venom induces different cell death pathways in Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease chemotherapy is based on drugs that exhibit toxic effects and have limited efficacy, such as Benznidazole. Therefore, research into new chemotherapeutic agents from natural sources needs to be exploited. Apis mellifera venom consists of many biologically active molecules and has been reported to exhibit remarkable anti-cancer effects, often promoting an apoptosis-like death phenotype. This study demonstrates that A. mellifera venom can affect the growth, viability and ultrastructure of all Trypanosoma cruzi developmental forms, including intracellular amastigotes, at concentrations 15- to 100-fold lower than those required to cause toxic effects in mammalian cells. The ultrastructural changes induced by the venom in the different developmental forms led us to hypothesize the occurrence of different programmed cell death pathways. Autophagic cell death, characterized by the presence of autophagosomes-like organelles and a strong monodansyl cadaverine labelling, appears to be the main death mechanism in epimastigotes. In contrast, increased TUNEL staining, abnormal nuclear chromatin condensation and kDNA disorganization was observed in venom-treated trypomastigotes, suggesting cell death by an apoptotic mechanism. On the other hand, intracellular amastigotes presented a heterogeneous cell death phenotype profile, where apoptosis-like death seemed to be predominant. Our findings confirm the great potential of A. mellifera venom as a source for the development of new drugs for the treatment of neglected diseases such as Chagas disease.

Bee venom at different concentrations modulates the aeroallergen-induced activation of nasal polyp epithelial cells

Bee venom (BV) has long been used as an oriental traditional medicine for the control of pain and inflammation. However, BV's anti-inflammatory mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to clarify the potential clinical efficacy of BV concerning the anti-inflammatory effect on nasal epithelial cell inflammation. Nasal polyp epithelial cells were obtained from patients. Cells were exposed to Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus nigra, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, Dermatophagoides farina and lipopolysaccharide with or without various concentrations of BV. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor were measured to determine the activation of epithelial cells. Nuclear factor-ĸB (NF-ĸB) and activator protein 1 expression and activity were determined with Western blot analysis and ELISA. Cytotoxicity of BV was measured using a CellTiter-96® aqueous cell proliferation assay kit. Cell survival was significantly decreased at BV concentrations exceeding 5 µg/ml. Fungi-induced cytokine production was more effectively inhibited by BV than house dust mite. Alternaria enhanced NF-ĸB expression, which was strongly inhibited by BV. BV appears to be relatively safe, and is of potential value for the treatment of airway inflammation and/or immunologic diseases.

Bee venom in cancer therapy

Bee venom (BV) (api-toxin) has been widely used in the treatment of some immune-related diseases, as well as in recent times in treatment of tumors. Several cancer cells, including renal, lung, liver, prostate, bladder, and mammary cancer cells as well as leukemia cells, can be targets of bee venom peptides such as melittin and phospholipase A2. The cell cytotoxic effects through the activation of PLA2 by melittin have been suggested to be the critical mechanism for the anti-cancer activity of BV. The induction of apoptotic cell death through several cancer cell death mechanisms, including the activation of caspase and matrix metalloproteinases, is important for the melittin-induced anti-cancer effects. The conjugation of cell lytic peptide (melittin) with hormone receptors and gene therapy carrying melittin can be useful as a novel targeted therapy for some types of cancer, such as prostate and breast cancer. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding potential of bee venom and its compounds such as melittin to induce cytotoxic, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and apoptotic effects in different tumor cells in vivo or in vitro. The recent applications of melittin in various cancers and a molecular explanation for the antiproliferative properties of bee venom are discussed.

Dermal and Ocular Irritation Studies of Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Venom

The aim of this study was to access the irritant properties of bee venom (BV) after its application to skin and eye mucous membranes of the rabbit. The animals were also observed for clinical signs and mortality after the application of the test material. Six animals were used for the skin irritation test and nine rabbits for the eye irritation test. The acute BV application to the rabbit skin revealed no appreciable clinical signs throughout the observation period of 72 h and there was no mortality seen. In the eye irritation test, eye reactions were read and graded 24, 48, 72, 96 and 168 h after BV treatment. No changes in the cornea, iris or conjunctivae were observed at all time points of observations. Based on the present findings, it can be concluded that the irritation potential of BV is negligible.

Melittin modulates keratinocyte function through P2 receptor-dependent ADAM activation

Melittin, the major component of the bee venom, is an amphipathic, cationic peptide with a wide spectrum of biological properties that is being considered as an anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer agent. It modulates multiple cellular functions but the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. Here, we report that melittin activates disintegrin-like metalloproteases (ADAMs) and that downstream events likely contribute to the biological effects evoked by the peptide. Melittin stimulated the proteolysis of ADAM10 and ADAM17 substrates in human neutrophil granulocytes, endothelial cells and murine fibroblasts. In human HaCaT keratinocytes, melittin induced shedding of the adhesion molecule E-cadherin and release of TGF-α, which was accompanied by transactivation of the EGF receptor and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. This was followed by functional consequences such as increased keratinocyte proliferation and enhanced cell migration. Evidence is provided that ATP release and activation of purinergic P2 receptors are involved in melittin-induced ADAM activation. E-cadherin shedding and EGFR phosphorylation were dose-dependently reduced in the presence of ATPases or P2 receptor antagonists. The involvement of P2 receptors was underscored in experiments with HEK cells, which lack the P2X7 receptor and showed strikingly increased response to melittin stimulation after transfection with this receptor. Our study provides new insight into the mechanism of melittin function which should be of interest particularly in the context of its potential use as an anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer agent.

Protective effect of melittin on inflammation and apoptosis in acute liver failure

Acute hepatic failure remains an extremely poor prognosis and still results in high mortality. Therefore, better treatment is urgently needed. Melittin, a major component of bee venom, is known to inhibit inflammatory reactions induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in various cell types. However, there is no evidence of the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effect of melittin on liver cells. In the present study, we investigated the effects of melittin on D: -galactosamine (GalN)/lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute hepatic failure. Acute liver injury was induced with GalN/LPS to determine in vivo efficacy of melittin. Mice were randomly divided into four groups: sterile saline treated group (NC), melittin only treated group (NM), GalN/LPS-treated group (GalN/LPS), and GalN/LPS treated with melittin group (M+GalN/LPS). Mice were given intraperitoneal GalN/LPS with or without melittin treatment. Liver injury was assessed biochemically and histologically. Inflammatory cytokines in the serum, apoptosis of hepatocytes, and cleavage of caspase-3 in the liver were determined. The expression of TNF-α and interleukin (IL)-1β were increased in the GalN/LPS group. However, treatment of melittin attenuated the increase of inflammatory cytokines. The M+GalN/LPS group showed significantly fewer apoptotic cells compared to the GalN/LPS group. Melittin significantly inhibited the expression of caspase and bax protein levels as well as cytochrome c release in vivo. In addition, melittin prevented the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) induced by GalN/LPS. These results clearly indicate that melittin provided protection against GalN/LPS-induced acute hepatic failure through the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines and apoptosis.

Melittin inhibits atherosclerosis in LPS/high-fat treated mice through atheroprotective actions

AIM

Atherosclerosis is influenced by multiple environmental factors that involve a complex interaction between blood components and the arterial wall and is characterized by inflammatory reactions. Melittin has been used in treatment of various chronic inflammatory diseases. We investigated the effects of melittin regulated atherosclerotic changes in an animal model of atherosclerosis.

METHODS

Atherosclerotic mice were induced by intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 2 mg/kg) three times a week and an atherogenic diet for 12 weeks.

RESULTS

Melittin (0.1 mg/kg) treatment was administered with i.p injection. Melittin treatment showed that total cholesterol and triglyceride levels decreased in atherosclerotic mice however, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels were higher in atherosclerotic mice treated with melittin than in atherosclerotic mice. H&E staining showed that heart and descending aorta were significantly recovered by melittin, compared to atherosclerotic mice. In addition, melittin decreased the expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, fibronectin and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 in atherosclerotic mice. In vitro, melittin decreased LPS-induced THP-1 cells-derived macrophages TNF-α and IL-1β expression levels and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signal pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that melittin has an anti-atherogenic effect by suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules.

The Anti-Arthritic Effects of Synthetic Melittin on the Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Rheumatoid Arthritis Model in Rats

Bee venom (BV) has been used for millennia in Chinese traditional medicine to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, its components and mechanism remain unclear, which has hampered its development and application for the treatment of RA. In this study, we examined the anti-arthritis effects of melittin, which composes nearly 50% of the dry weight of whole BV, on the complete Freund's adjuvant-induced (CFA-induced) RA model in rats. The RA animal models were treated with solutions of BV, melittin, and saline by injection into a specific acupoint (Zusanli). The BV and melittin treatments statistically diminished the thickness of the arthroses in the injected side of the paw, compared to the saline treatment. Melittin therapy also significantly reduced arthritis-induced nociceptive behaviors, as assessed by the thermal hyperalgesia test. In addition, CFA-induced Fos expression in the superficial layer of the lumbar spinal cord was significantly suppressed by the BV and melittin treatments, compared to the saline treatment. These results indicate that melittin is an effective anti-arthritis component of whole bee venom, making it a promising candidate as an anti-arthritis drug.

Consequences of alteration in leucine zipper sequence of melittin in its neutralization of lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory response in macrophage cells and interaction with lipopolysaccharide

The bee venom antimicrobial peptide, melittin, besides showing versatile activity against microorganisms also neutralizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proinflammatory responses in macrophage cells. However, how the amino acid sequence of melittin contributes in its anti-inflammatory properties is mostly unknown. To determine the importance of the leucine zipper sequence of melittin in its neutralization of LPS-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages and interaction with LPS, anti-inflammatory properties of melittin and its three analogues and their interactions with LPS were studied in detail. Two of these analogues, namely melittin Mut-1 (MM-1) and melittin Mut-2 (MM-2), possess leucine to alanine substitutions in the single and double heptadic leucine residue(s) of melittin, respectively, whereas the third analogue is a scrambled peptide (Mel-SCR) that contains the amino acid composition of melittin with minor rearrangement in its leucine zipper sequence. Although MM-1 partly inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 and rat primary macrophage cells in the presence of LPS, MM-2 and Mel-SCR were negligibly active. A progressive decrease in interaction of melittin with LPS, aggregation in LPS, and dissociation of LPS aggregates with alteration in the leucine zipper sequence of melittin was observed. Furthermore, with alteration in the leucine zipper sequence of melittin, these analogues failed to exhibit cellular responses associated with neutralization of LPS-induced inflammatory responses in macrophage cells by melittin. The data indicated a probable important role of the leucine zipper sequence of melittin in neutralizing LPS-induced proinflammatory responses in macrophage cells as well as in its interaction with LPS.

Anti-cancer effect of bee venom toxin and melittin in ovarian cancer cells through induction of death receptors and inhibition of JAK2/STAT3 pathway

We investigated whether bee venom and melittin, a major component of bee venom, inhibit cell growth through enhancement of death receptor expressions in the human ovarian cancer cells, SKOV3 and PA-1. Bee venom (1-5 μg/ml) and melittin (0.5-2 μg/ml) inhibited the growth of SKOV3 and PA-1 ovarian cancer cells by the induction of apoptotic cell death in a dose dependent manner. Consistent with apoptotic cell death, expression of death receptor (DR) 3 and DR6 was increased in both cancer cells, but expression of DR4 was increased only in PA-1 cells. Expression of DR downstream pro-apoptotic proteins including caspase-3, 8, and Bax was concomitantly increased, but the phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3 and the expression of Bcl-2 were inhibited by treatment with bee venom and melittin in SKOV3 and PA-1 cells. Expression of cleaved caspase-3 was increased in SKOV3, but cleaved caspase-8 was increased in PA-1 cells. Moreover, deletion of DR3, DR4, and DR6 by small interfering RNA significantly reversed bee venom and melittin-induced cell growth inhibitory effect as well as down regulation of STAT3 by bee venom and melittin in SKOV3 and PA-1 ovarian cancer cell. These results suggest that bee venom and melittin induce apoptotic cell death in ovarian cancer cells through enhancement of DR3, DR4, and DR6 expression and inhibition of STAT3 pathway.

Melittin inhibits cerulein-induced acute pancreatitis via inhibition of the JNK pathway

The major compound of bee venom, melittin, has been used as an anti-inflammatory reagent for decades. However, the potential of melittin to ameliorate acute pancreatitis (AP) is unknown. Our aim was to investigate the effect of melittin on cerulein-induced AP. Pre- and post-treatment with melittin inhibited histological changes in the pancreas and lungs during cerulein-induced AP. Pancreatic weight/body weight ratios; digestive enzymes, including amylase and lipase; serum and pancreatic cytokine expression; and myeloperoxidase activity were decreased. In addition, treatment with melittin inhibited the activation of c-Jun NH(2)-terminal protein kinase (JNK) in the pancreas during cerulein-induced pancreatitis. In accordance with the results of in vivo experiments, melittin reduced cerulein-induced cell death, and production of inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, our results suggest that melittin attenuated AP and AP-associated lung injury through the inhibition of JNK activation.

Effects of bee venom on glutamate-induced toxicity in neuronal and glial cells

Bee venom (BV), which is extracted from honeybees, is used in traditional Korean medical therapy. Several groups have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory effects of BV in osteoarthritis both in vivo and in vitro. Glutamate is the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). Changes in glutamate release and uptake due to alterations in the activity of glutamate transporters have been reported in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. To assess if BV can prevent glutamate-mediated neurotoxicity, we examined cell viability and signal transduction in glutamate-treated neuronal and microglial cells in the presence and absence of BV. We induced glutamatergic toxicity in neuronal cells and microglial cells and found that BV protected against cell death. Furthermore, BV significantly inhibited the cellular toxicity of glutamate, and pretreatment with BV altered MAP kinase activation (e.g., JNK, ERK, and p38) following exposure to glutamate. These findings suggest that treatment with BV may be helpful in reducing glutamatergic cell toxicity in neurodegenerative diseases.

Protective effects of melittin on transforming growth factor-β1 injury to hepatocytes via anti-apoptotic mechanism

Melittin is a cationic, hemolytic peptide that is the main toxic component in the venom of the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Melittin has multiple effects, including anti-bacterial, anti-viral and anti-inflammatory, in various cell types. However, the anti-apoptotic mechanisms of melittin have not been fully elucidated in hepatocytes. Apoptosis contributes to liver inflammation and fibrosis. Knowledge of the apoptotic mechanisms is important to develop new and effective therapies for treatment of cirrhosis, portal hypertension, liver cancer, and other liver diseases. In the present study, we investigated the anti-apoptotic effect of melittin on transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes. TGF-β1-treated hepatocytes were exposed to low doses (0.5 and 1 μg/mL) and high dose (2 μg/mL) of melittin. The low doses significantly protected these cells from DNA damage in TGF-β1-induced apoptosis compared to the high dose. Also, melittin suppressed TGF-β1-induced apoptotic activation of the Bcl-2 family and caspase family of proteins, which resulted in the inhibition of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage. These results demonstrate that TGF-β1 induces hepatocyte apoptosis and that an optimal dose of melittin exerts anti-apoptotic effects against TGF-β1-induced injury to hepatocytes via the mitochondrial pathway. These results suggest that an optimal dose of melittin can serve to protect cells against TGF-β1-mediated injury.

Electrophysiological and structural aspects in the frontal cortex after the bee (Apis mellifera) venom experimental treatment

The aim of this study is to evaluate the bioelectrical and structural-functional changes in frontal cortex after the bee venom (BV) experimental treatments simulating both an acute envenomation and a subchronic BV therapy. Wistar rats were subcutaneously injected once with three different BV doses: 700 μg/kg (T(1) group), 2100 μg/kg (T(3) group), and 62 mg/kg (sublethal dose-in T(SL) group), and repeated for 30 days with the lowest dose (700 μg/kg-in T(S) group). BV effects were assessed by electrophysiological, histological, histochemical, and ultrastructural methods. Single BV doses produced discharges of negative and biphasic sharp waves, and epileptiform spike-wave complexes. The increasing frequency of these elements suggested a dose-dependent neuronal hyperexcitation or irritation. As compared to the lower doses, the sublethal dose was responsible for a pronounced toxic effect, confirmed by ultrastructural data in both neurons and glial cells that underwent extensive, irreversible changes, triggering the cellular death. Subchronic BV treatment in T(S) group resulted in a slower frequency and increased amplitude of cortical activity suggesting neuronal loss. However, neurons were still stimulated by the last BV dose. Structural-functional data showed a reduced cellular density in frontal cortex of animals in this group, while the remaining neurons displayed both specific (stimulation of neuronal activity) and unspecific modifications (moderate alterations to necrotic phenomena). Molecular mechanisms involved in BV interactions with the nervous tissue are also discussed. We consider all these data very important for clinicians who manage patients with multiple bee stings, or who intend to set an appropriate BV therapy.

Effects of sweet bee venom pharmacopuncture treatment for chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy: a case series

OBJECTIVE

This is a case series reporting safety and degree of response to 1 dose level of sweet bee venom pharmacopuncture (SBVP) or melittin as a symptom-control therapy for chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN).

SETTING

All treatments were conducted at the East West Cancer Center (EWCC), Dunsan Oriental Hospital, Daejeon University, Republic of Korea, an institution that uses complementary therapies for cancer patients.

METHODS

Five consecutive patients with CIPN were referred to the EWCC from March 20, 2010, to April 10, 2010. Patients with World Health Organization Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy (WHO CIPN) grade 2 or more were treated with SBVP for 3 treatment sessions over a 1-week period. Measures of efficacy and safety. Validated Visual Analog System (VAS) pain scale, WHO CIPN grade, and Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General (FACT-G) were compared before and after the 1-week course of treatment. To ensure the safety of SBVP, pretreatment skin response tests were given to patients to avoid any potential anaphylactic adverse effects. All patients were closely examined for any allergenic responses following each treatment session.

RESULTS

One patient discontinued treatment after the first session, and 4 patients completed all treatment sessions. Using each patient as their own comparator, marked improvements of VAS, WHO CIPN grade, and physical section scores of FACT-G were seen in 3 patients. Most important, there were no related adverse side effects found.

CONCLUSION

This safety results of the SBVP therapy merits further investigations in a larger size trial for it to develop into a potential intervention for managing CIPN symptoms. This study will be extended to a dose-response evaluation to further establish safety and response, prior to a randomized trial.

Anti-cancer effect of bee venom in prostate cancer cells through activation of caspase pathway via inactivation of NF-κB

BACKGROUND

Bee venom has been used as a traditional medicine to treat arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, cancerous tumors, and skin diseases. However, the effects of bee venom on the prostate cancer and their action mechanisms have not been reported yet.

METHODS

To determine the effect of bee venom and its major component, melittin on the prostate cancer cells, apoptosis is analyzed by tunnel assay and apoptotic gene expression. For xenograft studies, bee venom was administrated intraperitoneally twice per week for 4 weeks, and the tumor growth was measured and the tumor were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. To investigate whether bee venom and melittin can inactivate nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), we assessed NF-κB activity in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Bee venom (1-10 µg/ml) and melittin (0.5-2.5 µg/ml) inhibited cancer cell growth through induction of apoptotic cell death in LNCaP, DU145, and PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. These effects were mediated by the suppression of constitutively activated NF-κB. Bee venom and melittin decreased anti-apoptotic proteins but induced pro-apoptotic proteins. However, pan caspase inhibitor abolished bee venom and melittin-induced apoptotic cell death and NF-κB inactivation. Bee venom (3-6 mg/kg) administration to nude mice implanted with PC-3 cells resulted in inhibition of tumor growth and activity of NF-κB accompanied with apoptotic cell death. Therefore, these results indicated that bee venom and melittin could inhibit prostate cancer in in vitro and in vivo, and these effects may be related to NF-κB/caspase signal mediated induction of apoptotic cell death.

Melittin enhances apoptosis through suppression of IL-6/sIL-6R complex-induced NF-κB and STAT3 activation and Bcl-2 expression for human fibroblast-like synoviocytes in rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Resistance to apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) is considered as a major characteristic in RA. This study was designed to identify whether melittin has a pro-apoptotic effect in IL-6/sIL6R-stimulated human FLS by investigating the expression of mitochondrial apoptosis-related genes, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT) activation.

METHODS

Cell viability was determined using a MTT assay after melittin treatment. Expressions of STAT3 and mitochondrial apoptosis-related genes induced by the IL-6/sIL-6R complex were determined by real time-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The expression of NF-κB p65 following IL-6 stimulation was determined by western blot analysis. The effects of melittin on the expression of apoptosis-related genes and the transcription factors NF-κB p65 and STAT3 were assessed in FLS. Apoptosis of FLS was determined by TUNEL-labeling to detect DNA strand breaks and DNA fragmentation assays. Caspase-3 activity was determined by a colorimetric assay.

RESULTS

IL-6/sIL-6R induced the activation of the transcription factors, STAT3, NF-κB p65 (nucleus), and Bcl-2. Melittin increased the expression of pro-apoptosis-related molecules, namely caspase-3, caspase-9, Apaf-1, and cytosolic cytochrome c, in a dose-dependent manner after treatment with IL-6/sIL-6R. Melittin inhibited STAT3 activation, translocation of NF-κB p65 into the nucleus, and expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2 and mitochondrial cytochrome c.

CONCLUSIONS

The pro-apoptotic effects of melittin likely result from inhibition of the activation of the transcription factors, STAT3 and NF-κB p65, and regulation of mitochondrial apoptosis-related genes. Melittin is thus a promising therapeutic option for RA as it induces apoptosis in apoptosis-resistant synoviocytes.

Effects induced by Apis mellifera venom and its components in experimental models of nociceptive and inflammatory pain

The effects induced by Apis mellifera venom (AMV), melittin-free AMV, fraction with molecular mass < 10 kDa (F<₁₀) or melittin in nociceptive and inflammatory pain models in mice were investigated. Subcutaneous administration of AMV (2, 4 or 6 mg/kg) or melittin-free AMV (1, 2 or 4 mg/kg) into the dorsum of mice inhibited both phases of formaldehyde-induced nociception. However, F<₁₀ (2, 4 or 6 mg/kg) or melittin (2 or 3 mg/kg) inhibited only the second phase. AMV (4 or 6 mg/kg), but not F<₁₀, melittin-free AMV or melittin, induced antinociception in the hot-plate model. Paw injection of AMV (0.05 or 0.10 mg), F<₁₀ (0.05 or 0.1 mg) or melittin (0.025 or 0.050 mg) induced a nociceptive response. In spite of inducing nociception after paw injection, scorpion (Tityus serrulatus) or snake (Bothrops jararaca) venom injected into the dorsum of mice did not inhibit formaldehyde-induced nociception. In addition, AMV (6 mg/kg), but not F<₁₀ (6 mg/kg) or melittin (3 mg/kg), inhibited formaldehyde paw oedema. Concluding, AMV, F<₁₀ and melittin induce two contrasting effects: nociception and antinociception. AMV antinociception involves the action of different components and does not result from non-specific activation of endogenous antinociceptive mechanisms activated by exposure to noxious stimuli.

New CZE-DAD method for honeybee venom analysis and standardization of the product

The aim of this study was to develop a new precise and accurate CZE-DAD method for honeybee venom analysis using cytochrome c as an internal standard. The 64.5 cm total length, 56 cm effective length, 75 μm ID, and 360 μm OD uncoated fused-silica capillary was used. The samples were injected into the capillary under a 50-mbar pressure for 7 s. There were 15 kV of electric field across the capillary applied. The current intensity was 26 μA. The separation was carried out at 25 °C. The analysis was run with the normal electrode polarity. The following steps and parameters were taken into account for the validation of the developed method: selectivity, precision, accuracy, linearity, limit of detection and limit of quantitation. All steps of the validation procedure proved that the developed analytical procedure was suitable for its intended purpose. Possibly this was the first study in which several honeybee venom components were separated and five of them were identified by capillary zone electrophoresis. In addition, the developed method was applied for quantitative analysis of 38 honeybee venom samples. The content (relative to the dry venom mass) of analyzed peptides in honeybee venom samples collected in 2002–2007 was as follows: apamine from 0.93% to 4.34% (mean, 2.85 ± 0.79%); mast cell degranulating peptide (MCDP) from 1.46% to 4.37% (mean, 2.82 ± 0.64%); phospholipase A₂ from 7.41% to 20.25% (mean, 12.95 ± 3.09%); melittin from 25.40% to 60.27%, (mean, 45.91 ± 9.78%). The results were compared with the experimental data obtained for the same venom samples analyzed earlier by the HPLC method. It was stated that HPCE and HPLC data did not differ significantly and that the HPCE method was the alternative for the HPLC method. Moreover, using the results obtained principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to clarify the general distribution patterns or similarities of four major honeybee venom constituents collected from two different bee strains in various months and years. PCA has shown that the strain of bee appears to be the only criteria for bee venom sample classification. Strong correlations between apamine, MCDP, phospholipase A₂, and melittin were confirmed. These correlations have to be taken into account in the honeybee venom standardization. The developed method due to its simplicity can be easily automated and incorporated into routine operations both in the bee venom identification, quality control, and standardization of the product.

Melittin stimulates fatty acid release through non-phospholipase-mediated mechanisms and interacts with the dopamine transporter and other membrane-spanning proteins

Phospholipase A(2) releases the fatty acid arachidonic acid from membrane phospholipids. We used the purported phospholipase A(2) stimulator, melittin, to examine the effects of endogenous arachidonic acid signaling on dopamine transporter function and trafficking. In HEK-293 cells stably transfected with the dopamine transporter, melittin reduced uptake of [((3))H]dopamine. Additionally, measurements of fatty acid content demonstrated a melittin-induced release of membrane-incorporated arachidonic acid, but inhibitors of phospholipase C, phospholipase D, and phospholipase A(2) did not prevent the release. Subsequent experiments measuring [(125)I]RTI-55 binding to the dopamine transporter demonstrated a direct interaction of melittin, or a melittin-activated endogenous compound, with the transporter to inhibit antagonist binding. This effect was not specific to the dopamine transporter, as [(3)H]spiperone binding to the recombinant dopamine D(2) receptor was also inhibited by melittin treatment. Finally, melittin stimulated an increase in internalization of the dopamine transporter, and this effect was blocked by pretreatment with cocaine. Thus, melittin acts through multiple mechanisms to regulate cellular activity, including release of membrane-incorporated fatty acids and interaction with the dopamine transporter.

Characterization of honeybee venom by MALDI-TOF and nanoESI-QqTOF mass spectrometry

The aim of the study was to comprehensively characterize different honeybee venom samples applying two complementary mass spectrometry methods. 41 honeybee venom samples of different bee strains, country of origin (Poland, Georgia, and Estonia), year and season of the venom collection were analyzed using MALDI-TOF and nanoESI-QqTOF-MS. It was possible to obtain semi-quantitative data for 12 different components in selected honeybee venom samples using MALDI-TOF method without further sophisticated and time consuming sample pretreatment. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) has shown that there are qualitative and quantitative differences in the composition between honeybee venom samples collected over different years. It has also been demonstrated that MALDI-TOF spectra can be used as a "protein fingerprint" of honeybee venom in order to confirm the identity of the product. NanoESI-QqTOF-MS was applied especially for identification purposes. Using this technique 16 peptide sequences were identified, including melittin (12 different breakdown products and precursors), apamine, mast cell degranulating peptide and secapin. Moreover, the significant achievement of this study is the fact that the new peptide (HTGAVLAGV+Amidated (C-term), M(r)=822.53Da) has been discovered in bee venom for the first time.

Anti-inflammatory effect of bee venom on antigen-induced arthritis in rabbits: influence of endogenous glucocorticoids

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study assessed the involvement of endogenous glucocorticoids (GCs) in the anti-arthritic properties of bee venom (BV) on antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in rabbits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BV (1.5-6 microg/kg/day) was injected for 7 days before AIA induction, whereas the control group received sterile saline. The total and differential leukocyte count, PGE(2) levels in synovial fluid and synovial membrane cell infiltrate were evaluated. The contribution of GCs to BV action was assessed in rabbits treated with BV plus metyrapone, an inhibitor of GC synthesis, or RU-38 486, a steroid antagonist.

RESULTS

Treatment with BV (1.5 microg/kg/day) reduced the leukocyte count and PGE(2) level (18571+/-1909 cells/mm(3) and 0.49+/-0.05 ng/mL, respectively) as well as the cellular infiltrate compared with the control group (40968+/-5248 cells/mm(3) and 2.92+/-0.68 ng/mL, p<0.05). The addition of metyrapone to BV treatment completely reversed the inhibition of AIA, whereas RU-38 486 was ineffective.

CONCLUSION

Our data show that bee venom treatment prevents the development of antigen-induced arthritis in rabbits through the action of GCs.

The nociceptive and anti-nociceptive effects of bee venom injection and therapy: a double-edged sword

Bee venom injection as a therapy, like many other complementary and alternative medicine approaches, has been used for thousands of years to attempt to alleviate a range of diseases including arthritis. More recently, additional theraupeutic goals have been added to the list of diseases making this a critical time to evaluate the evidence for the beneficial and adverse effects of bee venom injection. Although reports of pain reduction (analgesic and antinociceptive) and anti-inflammatory effects of bee venom injection are accumulating in the literature, it is common knowledge that bee venom stings are painful and produce inflammation. In addition, a significant number of studies have been performed in the past decade highlighting that injection of bee venom and components of bee venom produce significant signs of pain or nociception, inflammation and many effects at multiple levels of immediate, acute and prolonged pain processes. This report reviews the extensive new data regarding the deleterious effects of bee venom injection in people and animals, our current understanding of the responsible underlying mechanisms and critical venom components, and provides a critical evaluation of reports of the beneficial effects of bee venom injection in people and animals and the proposed underlying mechanisms. Although further studies are required to make firm conclusions, therapeutic bee venom injection may be beneficial for some patients, but may also be harmful. This report highlights key patterns of results, critical shortcomings, and essential areas requiring further study.

Piceatannol inhibits phorbol ester-induced NF-kappa B activation and COX-2 expression in cultured human mammary epithelial cells

There are multiple lines of evidence supporting that inflammation is causally linked to carcinogenesis. Abnormal upregulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), a rate-limiting enzyme in the prostaglandin biosynthesis, has been implicated in carcinogenesis. Trans-3,4,3',5'-tetrahydroxystilbene (piceatannol), a naturally occurring hydroxylated stilbene with potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities, has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of several cancer cells by inducing apoptosis or blocking cell cycle progression. In this study, we examined the effect of piceatannol on activation of the nuclear transcription factor NF-kappa B, one of the major transcription factors that regulate proinflammatory COX-2 gene transcription, in human mammary epithelial (MCF-10A) cells treated with the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). When pretreated to MCF-10A cells, piceatannol markedly inhibited TPA-induced NF-kappa B DNA binding to a greater extent than resveratrol and oxyresveratrol, stilbene analogs structurally related to piceatannol. Piceatannol also inhibited TPA-induced phosphorylation and degradation of Ikappa Balpha as well as nuclear translocation of the phosphorylated form of p65, the functionally active subunit of NF-kappa B. Likewise, TPA-induced expression of COX-2 was abrogated by piceatannol pretreatment. The thiol reducing agent dithiothreitol abolished the inhibitory effects of piceatannol on NF-kappa B DNA binding activity, suggesting that piceatannol may directly modify NF-kappa B or its regulator through reaction with the cysteine thiol(s).

alpha1-Acid glycoprotein production in rat dorsal air pouch in response to inflammatory stimuli, dexamethasone and honey bee venom

This study shows the rapid and differential production of the 40-43 kDa and the 70-90 kDa alpha1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) fucosylated glycoforms after treatment of the dorsal air pouch with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), HgCl(2) or Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA). The 40-43 kDa and the 70-90 kDa AGP production is peaked 1-3 h post-LPS treatment. We observed that the responses to LPS and FCA are similar in that both AGP isoforms are induced whereas they differ in that the FCA exhibits a 6 h lag period. The response to HgCl(2,) however, exhibits the specific biphasic induction only of the 40-43 kDa AGP. The serum 40-43 kDa AGP glycoform gradually increases in response to all of the above stimulants and peaks by 24 h post- treatment. The increase of the 70-90 kDa AGP levels in the air pouch occurs in association with the accumulation of polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells while dexamethasone (DEX) increases only the 40-43 kDa AGP production in the absence of PMN accumulation. Macrophage-monocyte lineage cells forming the air pouch lining tissue may potentially be the cells that secrete the 40-43 kDa AGP while polymorphonuclear cells that infiltrate the air pouch secrete the 70-90 kDa AGP. The 40-43 kDa and 70-90 kDa AGP production induced by LPS in the air pouch precedes that of interleukin-1 (IL-1) or interleukin-6 (IL-6) while the 40-43 kDa AGP glycoform potentially increases IL-6 production by air pouch PMN exudate cells. These significant differences suggest a local pro-inflammatory role of AGP. Honeybee venom suppressed arthritis development and exhibited differential local or systemic regulation of AGP in serum vs. air pouch exudate or synovial fluid. This study with the air pouch model of facsimile synovium tissue suggests that local alpha1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) production may contribute to pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory activities during the local acute phase response or during chronic inflammatory stress as in arthritis.

Snake venom toxin inhibits cell growth through induction of apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells

Snake venom toxin from Vipera lebetina turanica can induce apoptosis in many cancer cell lines, but there is no study about the apoptotic effect of snake venom toxin on human neuroblastoma cells. In this study, we investigated the apoptotic effect of snake venom toxin in human neuroblastoma SK-N-MC and SK-N-SH cells. Our result showed that cell detachment and apoptotic cell death were increased by snake venom toxin (1.25-10 microg/mL), but normal neuronal cells were not affected. Consistent with the induction of apoptosis, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was increased, but mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was disrupted by treatment with snake venom toxin. However, the glutathione prevented snake venom toxin-induced cell growth inhibition. Snake venom toxin also increased the expression of pro-apoptotic protein Bax, but down-regulated anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Therefore, these results showed that snake venom toxin from Vipera lebetina turanica causes apoptotic cell death of neuroblastoma cells through ROS dependent MMP disruption, and suggested that snake venom toxin may be applicable as an anti-cancer agent for neuroblastoma.

Bee venom suppresses PMA-mediated MMP-9 gene activation via JNK/p38 and NF-kappaB-dependent mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Bee venom has been used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and for the relief of pain in traditional oriental medicine.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to elucidate the effects of bee venom on MMP-9 expression and determine possible mechanisms by which bee venom relieves or prevents the expression of MMP-9 during invasion and metastasis of breast cancer cells. We examined the expression and activity of MMP-9 and possible signaling pathway affected in PMA-induced MCF-7 cells.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Bee venom was obtained from the National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology of Korea. Matrigel invasion assay, wound-healing assay, zymography assay, western blot assay, electrophoretic mobility shift assay and luciferase gene assay were used for assessment.

RESULTS

Bee venom inhibited cell invasion and migration, and also suppressed MMP-9 activity and expression, processes related to tumor invasion and metastasis, in PMA-induced MCF-7 cells. Bee venom specifically suppressed the phosphorylation of p38/JNK and at the same time, suppressed the protein expression, DNA binding and promoter activity of NF-kappaB. The levels of phosphorylated ERK1/2 and c-Jun did not change. We also investigated MMP-9 inhibition by melittin, apamin and PLA(2), representative single component of bee venom. We confirmed that PMA-induced MMP-9 activity was significantly decreased by melittin, but not by apamin and phospholipase A(2). These data demonstrated that the expression of MMP-9 was abolished by melittin, the main component of bee venom.

CONCLUSION

Bee venom inhibits PMA-induced MMP-9 expression and activity by inhibition of NF-kappaB via p38 MAPK and JNK signaling pathways in MCF-7 cells. These results indicate that bee venom can be a potential anti-metastatic and anti-invasive agent. This useful effect may lead to future clinical research on the anti-cancer properties of bee venom.

Bee Venom Inhibits Hepatic Fibrosis Through Suppression of Pro-Fibrogenic Cytokine Expression

Bee venom (BV) has a long tradition of use for the control of pain and inflammation in various chronic diseases. Carbon tetrachloride ( CCl4) is known to induce hepatotoxicity after being metabolized to the highly reactive trichloromethyl free radical and its peroxy radical. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether BV regulates the pro-inflammation and fibrosis related genes against a mouse model of hepatic fibrosis induced by CCl4and ethanol-treated hepatocytes (ETH). Test mice were administered with CCl4(2 ml/mg) and hepatocytes were treated with 25 mM ethanol. BV was added to the final concentration of 0.05–0.5 mg/kg and 1–100 ng/ml for in vivo and in vitro testing, respectively. Fibrotic livers and ETH were used for the measurement of hepatocyte necrosis, pro-inflammatory cytokines and fibrogenic genes. BV suppressed CCl4-induced hepatocyte necrosis markers of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). It also inhibited the secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Moreover, BV inhibited CCl4-induced expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and fibronectin. Similarly, ETH exhibited significant suppression of IL-1β, TNF-α, TGF-β1 and fibronectin when cultured with BV. These results suggest that BV possesses anti-fibrogenic properties that are mediated by the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and fibrogenic gene expression. BV has substantial therapeutic potential for the treatment of fibrotic diseases.

Bee Venom Reduces Atherosclerotic Lesion Formation via Anti-Inflammatory Mechanism

The components of bee venom (BV) utilized in the current study were carefully scrutinized with chromatography. Despite its well documented anti-inflammatory property, there are no reports regarding the influence of BV on the expression of cellular adhesion molecules in the vascular endothelium. A great amount of information exists concerning the effects of an atherogenic diet on atherosclerotic changes in the aorta, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms and the levels of gene regulation involved in the anti-inflammatory process induced by BV. The experimental atherosclerosis was induced in mice by a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection and an atherogenic diet. The animals were divided into three groups, the NC groups of animals that were fed with a normal diet, the LPS/fat group was fed with the atherogenic diet and received intraperitoneal injections of LPS, and the LPS/fat + BV group was given LPS, an atherogenic diet and intraperitoneal BV injections. At the end of each treatment period, the LPS/fat + BV group had decreased levels of total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) in their serum, compared to the LPS/fat group. The LPS/fat group had significant expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β in the serum, compared with the NC group ( p < 0.05). The amount of cytokines reduced consistently in the BV treatment groups compared with those in LPS/fat group. BV significantly reduced the amount of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and fibronectin in the aorta, compared with the LPS/fat group ( p < 0.05). A similar pattern was also observed in the heart. In conclusion, BV has anti-atherogenic properties via its lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Effect of bee venom on transforming growth factor-beta1-treated hepatocytes

Bee venom (BV) has been used as treatment against a wide variety of ailments, including inflammatory diseases. Various studies have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of BV. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 induces hepatocyte apoptosis via the mitochondrial permeability transition. However, there is no evidence or information regarding the antiapoptotic effect of BV on hepatocytes. The authors investigated the antiapoptotic effect of BV on TGF-beta1-treated hepatocytes. The results showed significant protection from DNA damage by BV treatment compared to corresponding TGF-beta1-treated hepatocytes without BV. BV suppressed TGF-beta1-induced activation of the bcl-2 family and caspase family of proteins, which resulted in inhibition of poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage. Furthermore, BV is not cytotoxic in the low concentrations used in this study. Low concentrations of BV potently suppress the apoptotic response in TGF-beta1-treated hepatocytes; therefore, BV may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of liver diseases.