Nanowire-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

Fabrication of polypyrrole nano-arrays in lysozyme single crystals

A template-directed method for the synthesis and organization of partially oxidized polypyrrole (PPy) nanoscale arrays within the solvent channels of glutaraldehyde-cross-linked lysozyme single crystals is presented. Macroscopic single crystals of the periodically arranged protein-polymer superstructure are electrically conductive, insoluble in water and organic solvents, and display increased levels of mechanical plasticity compared with native cross-linked lysozyme crystals.

Fully integrated biochip platforms for advanced healthcare

Recent advances in microelectronics and biosensors are enabling developments of innovative biochips for advanced healthcare by providing fully integrated platforms for continuous monitoring of a large set of human disease biomarkers. Continuous monitoring of several human metabolites can be addressed by using fully integrated and minimally invasive devices located in the sub-cutis, typically in the peritoneal region. This extends the techniques of continuous monitoring of glucose currently being pursued with diabetic patients. However, several issues have to be considered in order to succeed in developing fully integrated and minimally invasive implantable devices. These innovative devices require a high-degree of integration, minimal invasive surgery, long-term biocompatibility, security and privacy in data transmission, high reliability, high reproducibility, high specificity, low detection limit and high sensitivity. Recent advances in the field have already proposed possible solutions for several of these issues. The aim of the present paper is to present a broad spectrum of recent results and to propose future directions of development in order to obtain fully implantable systems for the continuous monitoring of the human metabolism in advanced healthcare applications.

Carbon nanotubes and metalloporphyrins and metallophthalocyanines-based materials for electroanalysis

We discuss here the state of the art on hybrid materials made from single (SWCNT) or multi (MWCNT) walled carbon nanotubes and MN4complexes such as metalloporphyrins and metallophthalocyanines. The hybrid materials have been characterized by several methods such as cyclic voltammetry (CV), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electrochemical microscropy (SECM). The materials are employed for electrocatalysis of reactions such as oxygen and hydrogen peroxide reduction, nitric oxide oxidation, oxidation of thiols and other pollutants.

Electric field guided assembly of one-dimensional nanostructures for high performance sensors

Various nanowire or nanotube-based devices have been demonstrated to fulfill the anticipated future demands on sensors. To fabricate such devices, electric field-based methods have demonstrated a great potential to integrate one-dimensional nanostructures into various forms. This review paper discusses theoretical and experimental aspects of the working principles, the assembled structures, and the unique functions associated with electric field-based assembly. The challenges and opportunities of the assembly methods are addressed in conjunction with future directions toward high performance sensors.

Biosensors based on combined optical and electrochemical transduction for molecular diagnostics

Electrochemical and optical biosensors exist to monitor different fluids containing analytes of interest. Until today, these have been developed separately. Owing to the creation of new transducer configurations such as indium tin-coated glass fiber optics, these methods can now be used separately, in parallel and it is hoped that one day they will be able to be used simultaneously; thus, using the same probe to measure a single analyte using two different methods (electrochemical and optical) or two different analytes with either of the aforementioned methods sitting on the same probe. This article will highlight the importance, as well as the usefulness, of combining measurement methodologies in improving sensor response and sensitivity.

Towards in vitro molecular diagnostics using nanostructures

Nanostructures appear to be promising for a number of applications in molecular diagnostics, mainly due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio they can offer, the very low limit of detection achievable, and the possibility to fabricate point-of-care diagnostic devices. In this paper, we review examples of the use of nanostructures as diagnostic tools that bring in marked improvements over prevalent classical assays. The focus is laid on the various sensing paradigms that possess the potential or have demonstrated the capability to replace or augment current analytical strategies. We start with a brief introduction of the various types of nanostructures and their physical properties that determine the transduction principle. This is followed by a concise collection of various functionalization protocols used to immobilize biomolecules on the nanostructure surface. The sensing paradigms are discussed in two contexts: the nanostructure acting as a label for detection, or the nanostructure acting as a support upon which the molecular recognition events take place. In order to be successful in the field of molecular diagnostics, it is important that the nanoanalytical tools be evaluated in the appropriate biological environment. The final section of the review compiles such examples, where the nanostructure-based diagnostic tools have been tested on realistic samples such as serum, demonstrating their analytical power even in the presence of complex matrix effects. The ability of nanodiagnostic tools to detect ultralow concentrations of one or more analytes coupled with portability and the use of low sample volumes is expected to have a broad impact in the field of molecular diagnostics.

Electronic detection of lectins using carbohydrate-functionalized nanostructures: graphene versus carbon nanotubes

Here we investigated the interactions between lectins and carbohydrates using field-effect transistor (FET) devices comprised of chemically converted graphene (CCG) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). Pyrene- and porphyrin-based glycoconjugates were functionalized noncovalently on the surface of CCG-FET and SWNT-FET devices, which were then treated with 2 μM nonspecific and specific lectins. In particular, three different lectins (PA-IL, PA-IIL, and ConA) and three carbohydrate epitopes (galactose, fucose, and mannose) were tested. The responses of 36 different devices were compared and rationalized using computer-aided models of carbon nanostructure/glycoconjugate interactions. Glycoconjugate surface coverage in addition to one-dimensional structures of SWNTs resulted in optimal lectin detection. Additionally, lectin titration data of SWNT- and CCG-based biosensors were used to calculate lectin dissociation constants (K(d)) and compare them to the values obtained from the isothermal titration microcalorimetry technique.

Protein microarray biosensors based on imaging ellipsometry techniques and their applications

After years of development, biosensors based on imaging ellipsometry and biosensors based on total internal reflection imaging ellipsometry have been successfully implemented in various engineering systems. Their experimental setups, detection principles, and biological and clinical applications are briefly reviewed.

Review of transducer principles for label-free biomolecular interaction analysis

Label-free biomolecular interaction analysis is an important technique to study the chemical binding between e.g., protein and protein or protein and small molecule in real-time. The parameters obtained with this technique, such as the affinity, are important for drug development. While the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) instruments are most widely used, new types of sensors are emerging. These developments are generally driven by the need for higher throughput, lower sample consumption or by the need of complimentary information to the SPR data. This review aims to give an overview about a wide range of sensor transducers, the working principles and the peculiarities of each technology, e.g., concerning the set-up, sensitivity, sensor size or required sample volume. Starting from optical technologies like the SPR and waveguide based sensors, acoustic sensors like the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and the film bulk acoustic resonator (FBAR), calorimetric and electrochemical sensors are covered. Technologies long established in the market are presented together with those newly commercially available and with technologies in the early development stage. Finally, the commercially available instruments are summarized together with their sensitivity and the number of sensors usable in parallel and an outlook for potential future developments is given.

Protein biosensors based on polymer nanowires, carbon nanotubes and zinc oxide nanorods

The development of biosensors using electrochemical methods is a promising application in the field of biotechnology. High sensitivity sensors for the bio-detection of proteins have been developed using several kinds of nanomaterials. The performance of the sensors depends on the type of nanostructures with which the biomaterials interact. One dimensional (1-D) structures such as nanowires, nanotubes and nanorods are proven to have high potential for bio-applications. In this paper we review these three different kinds of nanostructures that have attracted much attention at recent times with their great performance as biosensors. Materials such as polymers, carbon and zinc oxide have been widely used for the fabrication of nanostructures because of their enhanced performance in terms of sensitivity, biocompatibility, and ease of preparation. Thus we consider polymer nanowires, carbon nanotubes and zinc oxide nanorods for discussion in this paper. We consider three stages in the development of biosensors: (a) fabrication of biomaterials into nanostructures, (b) alignment of the nanostructures and (c) immobilization of proteins. Two different methods by which the biosensors can be developed at each stage for all the three nanostructures are examined. Finally, we conclude by mentioning some of the major challenges faced by many researchers who seek to fabricate biosensors for real time applications.

Ultrasensitive in situ label-free DNA detection using a GaN nanowire-based extended-gate field-effect-transistor sensor

In this study, we have successfully demonstrated that a GaN nanowire (GaNNW) based extended-gate field-effect-transistor (EGFET) biosensor is capable of specific DNA sequence identification under label-free in situ conditions. Our approach shows excellent integration of the wide bandgap semiconducting nature of GaN, surface-sensitivity of the NW-structure, and high transducing performance of the EGFET-design. The simple sensor-architecture, by direct assembly of as-synthesized GaNNWs with a commercial FET device, can achieve an ultrahigh detection limit below attomolar level concentrations: about 3 orders of magnitude higher in resolution than that of other FET-based DNA-sensors. Comparative in situ studies on mismatches ("hotspot" mutations related to human p53 tumor-suppressor gene) and complementary targets reveal excellent selectivity and specificity of the sensor, even in the presence of noncomplementary DNA strands, suggesting the potential pragmatic application in complex clinical samples. In comparison with GaN thin film, NW-based EGFET exhibits excellent performance with about 2 orders higher sensitivity, over a wide detection range, 10(-19)-10(-6) M, reaching about a 6-orders lower detection limit. Investigations illustrate the unique and distinguished feature of nanomaterials. Detailed studies indicate a positive effect of energy band alignment at the biomaterials-semiconductor hybrid interface influencing the effective capacitance and carrier-mobility of the system.

Electrophoretic fabrication of chitosan-zirconium-oxide nanobiocomposite platform for nucleic acid detection

The present work describes electrophoretic fabrication of nanostructured chitosan-zirconium-oxide composite (CHIT-NanoZrO(2)) film (180 nm) onto indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-coated glass plate. This nanobiocomposite film has been explored as immobilization platform for probe DNA specific to M. Tuberculosis as model biomolecule to investigate its sensing characteristics. It is revealed that pH-responsive behavior of CHIT and its cationic skeleton is responsible for the movement of CHIT-NanoZrO(2) colloids toward cathode during electrophoretic deposition. The FT-IR, SEM, TEM, and EDX techniques have been employed for the structural, morphological, and composition analysis of the fabricated electrodes. The morphological studies clearly reveal uniform inter-linking and dispersion of hexagonal nanograins of ZrO(2) (30-50 nm) into the chitosan matrix, resulting in homogeneous nanobiocomposite formation. Electrochemical response measurements of DNA/CHIT-NanoZrO(2)/ITO bioelectrode, carried out using cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry, reveal that this bioelectrode can specifically detect complementary target DNA up to 0.00078 μM with sensitivity of 6.38 × 10(-6) AμM(-1).

Highly sensitive single polyaniline nanowire biosensor for the detection of immunoglobulin G and myoglobin

A single polyaniline (PANI) nanowire-based biosensor was established to detect immunoglobulin G (IgG) and myoglobin (Myo), which is one of the cardiac biomarkers. The single PANI nanowires were fabricated via an electrochemical growth method, in which single nanowires were formed between a pair of patterned electrodes. The single PANI nanowires were functionalized with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) of IgG or Myo via a surface immobilization method, using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC), and N-hydroxysuccinimde (NHS). The functionalization was then verified by Raman spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy. The target proteins of IgG and Myo were detected by measuring the conductance change of functionalized single PANI nanowires owing to the capturing of target proteins by mAbs. The detection limit was found to be 3 ng/mL for IgG and 1.4 ng/mL for Myo. No response was observed when single nanowires were exposed to a non-specific protein, demonstrating excellent specificity to expected target detection. Together with the fast response time (a few seconds), high sensitivity, and good specificity, this single PANI nanowire-based biosensor shows great promise in the detection of cardiac markers and other proteins.

All-(111) surface silicon nanowires: selective functionalization for biosensing applications

We demonstrate the utilization of selective functionalization of carbon-silicon (C-Si) alkyl and alkenyl monolayers covalently linked to all-(111) surface silicon nanowire (Si-NW) biosensors. Terminal amine groups on the functional monolayer surfaces were used for conjugation of biotin n-hydroxysuccinimide ester. The selective functionalization is demonstrated by contact angle, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) of 5 nm diameter thiolated Au nanoparticles linked with streptavidin and conjugated to the biotinylated all-(111) surface Si-NWs. Electrical measurements of monolayer passivated Si-NWs show improved device behavior and performance. Furthermore, an analytical model is presented to demonstrate the improvement in detection sensitivity of the alkyl and alkenyl passivated all-(111) Si-NW biosensors compared to conventional nanowire biosensor geometries and silicon dioxide passivation layers as well as interface design and electrical biasing guidelines for depletion-mode sensors.

Optical sensing with simultaneous electrochemical control in metal nanowire arrays

This work explores the alternative use of noble metal nanowire systems in large-scale array configurations to exploit both the nanowires' conductive nature and localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). The first known nanowire-based system has been constructed, with which optical signals are influenced by the simultaneous application of electrochemical potentials. Optical characterization of nanowire arrays was performed by measuring the bulk refractive index sensitivity and the limit of detection. The formation of an electrical double layer was controlled in NaCl solutions to study the effect of local refractive index changes on the spectral response. Resonance peak shifts of over 4 nm, a bulk refractive index sensitivity up to 115 nm/RIU and a limit of detection as low as 4.5 × 10(-4) RIU were obtained for gold nanowire arrays. Simulations with the Multiple Multipole Program (MMP) confirm such bulk refractive index sensitivities. Initial experiments demonstrated successful optical biosensing using a novel form of particle-based nanowire arrays. In addition, the formation of an ionic layer (Stern-layer) upon applying an electrochemical potential was also monitored by the shift of the plasmon resonance.

Nanoelectrodes for biological measurements

Nanoelectrodes are electrodes with a critical dimension in the range of one to hundreds of nanometers and include individual electrodes, nanoelectrode ensembles, and arrays. Metallic nanowires, carbon nanotubes, magnetic nanoparticles, and metal oxide nanowires have been employed to fabricate nanoelectrodes and platforms. In this review, applications of single electrodes, nanoelectrode arrays, and ensembles are briefly evaluated, with emphasis on biological analysis. Nanoelectrodes offer great advantages in numerous areas of biological investigations, particularly in single cells studies, fabrication of microchips, design of coordinated biosensors, and in addressable patterned electrodes. Consequently, nanoelectrodes have immense potential in the development of efficient, specific, sensitive, and intelligent sensors. In conjunction with the rapidly evolving, cost-effective fabrication and materials development approaches, these sensors can be used as direct, point-of-care clinical devices, enabling more personalized medical care. The development and application of nanodevices in biology and medicine will have enormous implications for society and human health.

Single-walled carbon nanotube chemoresistive label-free immunosensor for salivary stress biomarkers

The present work is focused on the development, analytical characterization and evaluation of selective and sensitive SWNT-chemiresistor immunosensor for the label-free detection of salivary α-amylase (SAA). SWNTs were aligned to bridge lithographically patterned gold microelectrodes using AC dielectrophoresis followed by functionalization with anti-SAA antibodies. The nano-immunosensors exhibited excellent sensitivity over the clinically relevant range (19 to 308 U ml(-1)) with a limit of detection (LOD) of 6 µg ml(-1) (0.6 U ml(-1)) and 7.8 µg ml(-1) (0.78 U ml(-1)) in phosphate buffer and artificial saliva, respectively, and no interference from other components of saliva. This label-free nano-immunosensor technology has potential application in clinical diagnosis for stress biomarkers expressed in human saliva at the point-of-care.

Periodic si nanopillar arrays fabricated by colloidal lithography and catalytic etching for broadband and omnidirectional elimination of Fresnel reflection

Periodic Si nanopillar arrays (NPAs) were fabricated by the colloidal lithography combined with catalytic etching. By varying the size of colloidal crystals using oxygen plasma etching, Si NPAs with desirable diameter and fill factor could be obtained. The Fresnel reflection can be eliminated effectively over broadband regions by NPAs; i.e., the wavelength-averaged specular reflectance is decreased to 0.70% at wavelengths of 200-1900 nm. The reflectance is reduced greatly for the incident angles up to 70 degrees for both s- and p-polarized light. These excellent antireflection performances are attributed to light trapping effect and very low effective refractive indices, which can be modified by the fill factor of Si in the NPA layers.

Carbon nanotubes-based chemiresistive immunosensor for small molecules: detection of nitroaromatic explosives

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on use of one-dimensional (1-D) nanostructures, such as carbon nanotubes and nanowires, as transducer elements for label-free chemiresistive/field-effect transistor biosensors as they provide label-free and high sensitivity detection. While research to-date has elucidated the power of carbon nanotubes- and other 1-D nanostructure-based field effect transistors immunosensors for large charged macromolecules such as proteins and viruses, their application to small uncharged or charged molecules has not been demonstrated. In this paper we report a single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs)-based chemiresistive immunosensor for label-free, rapid, sensitive and selective detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), a small molecule. The newly developed immunosensor employed a displacement mode/format in which SWNTs network forming conduction channel of the sensor was first modified with trinitrophenyl (TNP), an analog of TNT, and then ligated with the anti-TNP single chain antibody. Upon exposure to TNT or its derivatives the bound antibodies were displaced producing a large change, several folds higher than the noise, in the resistance/conductance of SWNTs giving excellent limit of detection, sensitivity and selectivity. The sensor detected between 0.5 ppb and 5000 ppb TNT with good selectivity to other nitroaromatic explosives and demonstrated good accuracy for monitoring TNT in untreated environmental water matrix. We believe this new displacement format can be easily generalized to other one-dimensional nanostructure-based chemiresistive immuno/affinity-sensors for detecting small and/or uncharged molecules of interest in environmental monitoring and health care.

Prospects of nanotechnology in clinical immunodiagnostics

Nanostructured materials are promising compounds that offer new opportunities as sensing platforms for the detection of biomolecules. Having micrometer-scale length and nanometer-scale diameters, nanomaterials can be manipulated with current nanofabrication methods, as well as self-assembly techniques, to fabricate nanoscale bio-sensing devices. Nanostructured materials possess extraordinary physical, mechanical, electrical, thermal and multifunctional properties. Such unique properties advocate their use as biomimetic membranes to immobilize and modify biomolecules on the surface of nanoparticles. Alignment, uniform dispersion, selective growth and diameter control are general parameters which play critical roles in the successful integration of nanostructures for the fabrication of bioelectronic sensing devices. In this review, we focus on different types and aspects of nanomaterials, including their synthesis, properties, conjugation with biomolecules and their application in the construction of immunosensing devices. Some key results from each cited article are summarized by relating the concept and mechanism behind each sensor, experimental conditions and the behavior of the sensor under different conditions, etc. The variety of nanomaterial-based bioelectronic devices exhibiting novel functions proves the unique properties of nanomaterials in such sensing devices, which will surely continue to expand in the future. Such nanomaterial based devices are expected to have a major impact in clinical immunodiagnostics, environmental monitoring, security surveillance and for ensuring food safety.