101
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Dömötör O, Aicher S, Schmidlehner M, Novak MS, Roller A, Jakupec MA, Kandioller W, Hartinger CG, Keppler BK, Enyedy ÉA. Antitumor pentamethylcyclopentadienyl rhodium complexes of maltol and allomaltol: synthesis, solution speciation and bioactivity. J Inorg Biochem 2014; 134:57-65. [PMID: 24556426 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2014.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2013] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of the dimer [Rh(III)(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)(μ-Cl)Cl]2 ([Rh(III)(Cp*)(μ-Cl)Cl]2) with the hydroxypyrone ligands maltol and allomaltol affords complexes of the general formula [Rh(III)(Cp*)(L)Cl] under standard and microwave conditions. The organometallic compounds were characterized by standard analytical methods and in the case of the allomaltol derivative in the solid state by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The complexes showed similar cytotoxicity profiles and were proved to be moderately active against various human cancer cell lines. The stoichiometry and stability of these complexes were determined in aqueous solution by pH-potentiometry, (1)H NMR spectroscopy and UV-visible spectrophotometry. Speciation was studied in the presence and in the absence of chloride ions. Hydrolysis of [Rh(III)(Cp*)(H2O)3](2+) gave dimeric mixed hydroxido species [(Rh(III)(Cp*))2(μ-OH)3](+) and [(Rh(III)(Cp*))2(μ-OH)2Z2] (Z=H2O/Cl(-)). Formation of the mononuclear complexes [Rh(III)(Cp*)(L)Z] of maltol and allomaltol with similar and moderate stability was found. These species predominate at physiological pH and decompose only partially at micromolar concentrations. In addition, hydrolysis of the aqua complex or a chlorido/hydroxido co-ligand exchange resulted in the formation of the mixed-hydroxido species [Rh(III)(Cp*)(L)(OH)] in the basic pH range. Replacement of the chlorido by an aqua ligand in the complex [Rh(III)(Cp*)(L)Cl] was monitored and with the help of the equilibrium constants the extent of aquation at various chloride concentrations of the extra- and intracellular milieu can be predicted. Complexation of these Rh(III) complexes was compared to analogous [Ru(II)(η(6)-p-cymene)] species and higher conditional stabilities were found in the case of the Rh(III) compounds at pH7.4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Dömötör
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Sabine Aicher
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Melanie Schmidlehner
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria S Novak
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Roller
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael A Jakupec
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; University of Vienna, Research Platform Translational Cancer Therapy Research, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kandioller
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; University of Vienna, Research Platform Translational Cancer Therapy Research, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian G Hartinger
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, PB: 92019, 1142 Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Bernhard K Keppler
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; University of Vienna, Research Platform Translational Cancer Therapy Research, Waehringer Str. 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Éva A Enyedy
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
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102
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Hartinger CG, Groessl M, Meier SM, Casini A, Dyson PJ. Application of mass spectrometric techniques to delineate the modes-of-action of anticancer metallodrugs. Chem Soc Rev 2014; 42:6186-99. [PMID: 23660626 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs35532b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS) has emerged as an important tool for studying anticancer metallodrugs in complex biological samples and for characterising their interactions with biomolecules and potential targets on a molecular level. The exact modes-of-action of these coordination compounds and especially of next generation drug candidates have not been fully elucidated. Due to the fact that DNA is considered a crucial target for platinum chemotherapeutics, metallodrug-DNA binding studies dominated the field for a long time. However, more recently, alternative targets were considered, including enzymes and proteins that may play a role in the overall pharmacological and toxicological profile of metallodrugs. This review focuses on MS-based techniques for studying anticancer metallodrugs in vivo, in vitro and in situ to delineate their modes-of-action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian G Hartinger
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 1142 Auckland, New Zealand.
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103
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Sija É, Hartinger CG, Keppler BK, Kiss T, Enyedy ÉA. Solution equilibrium studies of anticancer ruthenium(II)-η6-p-cymene complexes of pyridinecarboxylic acids. Polyhedron 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2013.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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104
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Hummer AA, Rompel A. The use of X-ray absorption and synchrotron based micro-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to investigate anti-cancer metal compounds in vivo and in vitro. Metallomics 2013; 5:597-614. [PMID: 23558305 DOI: 10.1039/c3mt20261e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and micro-synchrotron based X-ray fluorescence (micro-SXRF) are element specific spectroscopic techniques and have been proven to be valuable tools for the investigation of changes in the chemical environment of metal centres. XAS allows the determination of the oxidation state, the coordination motif of the probed element, the identity and the number of adjacent atoms and the absorber-ligand distances. It is further applicable to nearly all types of samples independent of their actual physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous) down to μM concentrations. Micro-SXRF can provide information on the distribution and concentration of multiple elements within a sample simultaneously, allowing for the chemical state of several elements within subcellular compartments to be probed. Modern third generation synchrotrons offer the possibility to investigate the majority of the biologically relevant elements. The biological mode of action of metal-based compounds often involves interactions with target and/or transport molecules. The presence of reducing agents may also give rise to changes in the coordination sphere and/or the oxidation state. XAS and micro-SXRF are ideal techniques for investigating these issues. This tutorial review introduces the use of XAS and micro-SXRF techniques into the field of inorganic medicinal chemistry. The results obtained for platinum, ruthenium, gallium, gold and cobalt compounds within the last few years are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred A Hummer
- Institut für Biophysikalische Chemie, Universität Wien, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Wien, Austria
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105
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Webb MI, Wu B, Jang T, Chard RA, Wong EWY, Wong MQ, Yapp DTT, Walsby CJ. Increasing the Bioavailability of RuIIIAnticancer Complexes through Hydrophobic Albumin Interactions. Chemistry 2013; 19:17031-42. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201302671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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106
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Synthesis, characterization, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and DNA cleavage studies of ruthenium(III) complexes containing N-substituted thiosemicarbazone/semicarbazone. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-013-1097-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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107
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Heffeter P, Atil B, Kryeziu K, Groza D, Koellensperger G, Körner W, Jungwirth U, Mohr T, Keppler BK, Berger W. The ruthenium compound KP1339 potentiates the anticancer activity of sorafenib in vitro and in vivo. Eur J Cancer 2013; 49:3366-75. [PMID: 23790465 PMCID: PMC3807657 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2013.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/30/2022]
Abstract
KP1339 is a promising ruthenium-based anticancer compound in early clinical development. This study aimed to test the effects of KP1339 on the in vitro and in vivo activity of the multi-kinase inhibitor sorafenib, the current standard first-line therapy for advanced hepatoma. Anticancer activity of the parental compounds as compared to the drug combination was tested against a panel of cancer cell lines with a focus on hepatoma. Combination of KP1339 with sorafenib induced in the majority of all cases distinctly synergistic effects, comprising both sorafenib-resistant as well as sorafenib-responsive cell models. Several mechanisms were found to underlie these multifaceted synergistic activities. Firstly, co-exposure induced significantly enhanced accumulation levels of both drugs resulting in enhanced apoptosis induction. Secondly, sorafenib blocked KP1339-mediated activation of P38 signalling representing a protective response against the ruthenium drug. In addition, sorafenib treatment also abrogated KP1339-induced G2/M arrest but resulted in check point-independent DNA-synthesis block and a complete loss of the mitotic cell populations. The activity of the KP1339/sorafenib combination was evaluated in the Hep3B hepatoma xenograft. KP1339 monotherapy led to a 2.4-fold increase in life span and, thus, was superior to sorafenib, which induced a 1.9-fold prolonged survival. The combined therapy further enhanced the mean survival by 3.9-fold. Synergistic activity was also observed in the VM-1 melanoma xenograft harbouring an activating braf mutation. Together, our data indicate that the combination of KP1339 with sorafenib displays promising activity in vitro and in vivo especially against human hepatoma models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Heffeter
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University Vienna, Austria; Research and Platform "Translational Cancer Therapy Research" Vienna, Austria
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108
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Büchel G, Gavriluta A, Novak M, Meier S, Jakupec MA, Cuzan O, Turta C, Tommasino JB, Jeanneau E, Novitchi G, Luneau D, Arion VB. Striking difference in antiproliferative activity of ruthenium- and osmium-nitrosyl complexes with azole heterocycles. Inorg Chem 2013; 52:6273-85. [PMID: 23659478 PMCID: PMC3733131 DOI: 10.1021/ic400555k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Ruthenium nitrosyl complexes of the general formulas (cation)(+)[cis-RuCl4(NO)(Hazole)](-), where (cation)(+) = (H2ind)(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (Hind) (1c), (cation)(+) = (H2pz)(+), Hazole = 1H-pyrazole (Hpz) (2c), (cation)(+) = (H2bzim)(+), Hazole = 1H-benzimidazole (Hbzim) (3c), (cation)(+) = (H2im)(+), Hazole = 1H-imidazole (Him) (4c) and (cation)(+)[trans-RuCl4(NO)(Hazole)](-), where (cation)(+) = (H2ind)(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (1t), (cation)(+) = (H2pz)(+), Hazole = 1H-pyrazole (2t), as well as osmium analogues of the general formulas (cation)(+)[cis-OsCl4(NO)(Hazole)](-), where (cation)(+) = (n-Bu4N)(+), Hazole =1H-indazole (5c), 1H-pyrazole (6c), 1H-benzimidazole (7c), 1H-imidazole (8c), (cation)(+) = Na(+); Hazole =1H-indazole (9c), 1H-benzimidazole (10c), (cation)(+) = (H2ind)(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (11c), (cation)(+) = H2pz(+), Hazole = 1H-pyrazole (12c), (cation)(+) = (H2im)(+), Hazole = 1H-imidazole (13c), and (cation)(+)[trans-OsCl4(NO)(Hazole)](-), where (cation)(+) = n-Bu4N(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (5t), 1H-pyrazole (6t), (cation)(+) = Na(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (9t), (cation)(+) = (H2ind)(+), Hazole = 1H-indazole (11t), (cation)(+) = (H2pz)(+), Hazole = 1H-pyrazole (12t), have been synthesized. The compounds have been comprehensively characterized by elemental analysis, ESI mass spectrometry, spectroscopic techniques (IR, UV-vis, 1D and 2D NMR) and X-ray crystallography (1c·CHCl3, 1t·CHCl3, 2t, 3c, 6c, 6t, 8c). The antiproliferative activity of water-soluble compounds (1c, 1t, 3c, 4c and 9c, 9t, 10c, 11c, 11t, 12c, 12t, 13c) in the human cancer cell lines A549 (nonsmall cell lung carcinoma), CH1 (ovarian carcinoma), and SW480 (colon adenocarcinoma) has been assayed. The effects of metal (Ru vs Os), cis/trans isomerism, and azole heterocycle identity on cytotoxic potency and cell line selectivity have been elucidated. Ruthenium complexes (1c, 1t, 3c, and 4c) yielded IC50 values in the low micromolar concentration range. In contrast to most pairs of analogous ruthenium and osmium complexes known, they turned out to be considerably more cytotoxic than chemically related osmium complexes (9c, 9t, 10c, 11c, 11t, 12c, 12t, 13c). The IC50 values of Os/Ru homologs differ by factors (Os/Ru) of up to ~110 and ~410 in CH1 and SW480 cells, respectively. ESI-MS studies revealed that ascorbic acid may activate the ruthenium complexes leading to hydrolysis of one M-Cl bond, whereas the osmium analogues tend to be inert. The interaction with myoglobin suggests nonselective adduct formation; i.e., proteins may act as carriers for these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel
E. Büchel
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
- Laboratoire des Multimatériaux
et Interfaces (UMR5615), Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Campus de La Doua, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex,
France
| | - Anatolie Gavriluta
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
- Laboratoire des Multimatériaux
et Interfaces (UMR5615), Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Campus de La Doua, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex,
France
| | - Maria Novak
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Samuel
M. Meier
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael A. Jakupec
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Olesea Cuzan
- Institute of Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Academiei Str. 3, MD-2028
Chisinau, Moldova
| | - Constantin Turta
- Institute of Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Academiei Str. 3, MD-2028
Chisinau, Moldova
| | - Jean-Bernard Tommasino
- Laboratoire des Multimatériaux
et Interfaces (UMR5615), Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Campus de La Doua, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex,
France
| | - Erwann Jeanneau
- Laboratoire des Multimatériaux
et Interfaces (UMR5615), Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Campus de La Doua, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex,
France
| | - Ghenadie Novitchi
- Laboratoire
National des Champs Magnétiques Intenses-CNRS, Université Joseph Fourier, 25 Avenue des Martyrs,
38042 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Dominique Luneau
- Laboratoire des Multimatériaux
et Interfaces (UMR5615), Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Campus de La Doua, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex,
France
| | - Vladimir B. Arion
- Institute
of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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109
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Solution equilibria of anticancer ruthenium(II)-(η(6)-p-cymene)-hydroxy(thio)pyr(id)one complexes: impact of sulfur vs. oxygen donor systems on the speciation and bioactivity. J Inorg Biochem 2013; 127:161-8. [PMID: 23721887 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Stoichiometry and stability of antitumor ruthenium(II)-η(6)-p-cymene complexes of bidentate (O,O) hydroxypyrone and (O,S) hydroxythiopyr(id)one type ligands were determined by pH-potentiometry, (1)H NMR spectroscopy and UV-Vis spectrophotometry in aqueous solution and in dependence of chloride ion concentration. Formation of mono-ligand complexes with moderate stability was found in the case of the hydroxypyrone ligands (ethyl maltol and allomaltol) predominating at the physiological pH range. These complexes decompose to the dinuclear tri-hydroxido bridged species [{Ru(II)(η(6)-p-cymene)}2(OH)3](+) and to the metal-free ligand at basic pH values. In addition, formation of a hydroxido [Ru(II)(η(6)-p-cymene)(L)(OH)] species was found. The hydroxythiopyr(id)one ligands (thiomaltol, thioallomaltol, 3-hydroxy-1,2-dimethyl-thiopyridone) form complexes of significantly higher stability compared with the hydroxypyrones; their complexes are biologically more active, the simultaneous bi- and monodentate coordination of the ligands in the bis complexes (ML2 and ML2H) was also demonstrated. In the case of thiomaltol, formation of tris complexes is also likely at high pH. The replacement of the chlorido by the aqua ligand in the [Ru(II)(η(6)-p-cymene)(L)(Cl)] species was monitored, which is an important activation step in the course of the mode of action of the complexes, facilitating binding to biological targets.
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110
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Bučinský L, Büchel GE, Ponec R, Rapta P, Breza M, Kožíšek J, Gall M, Biskupič S, Fronc M, Schiessl K, Cuzan O, Prodius D, Turta C, Shova S, Zając DA, Arion VB. On the Electronic Structure ofmer,trans-[RuCl3(1H-indazole)2(NO)], a Hypothetical Metabolite of the Antitumor Drug Candidate KP1019: An Experimental and DFT Study. Eur J Inorg Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201201526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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111
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Adeniyi AA, Ajibade PA. Comparing the suitability of autodock, gold and glide for the docking and predicting the possible targets of Ru(II)-based complexes as anticancer agents. Molecules 2013; 18:3760-78. [PMID: 23529035 PMCID: PMC6270031 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18043760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In cancer chemotherapy, metal-based complexes have been recognized as the most promising means of inhibiting cancer growth due to the successful application of cis-platin and its derivatives above many of the existing organic anticancer agents. The limitations in their rational design can be traced to the complexity of the mechanism of their operations, lack of proper knowledge of their targets and lack of force fields in docking packages to appropriately define the metal centre of the organometallic complexes. In this paper, some of the promising anticancer complexes of Ru(II) such as the rapta-based complexes formulated as [Ru(η6-p-cymene)L2(pta)] and those with unusual ligands are considered. CatB and kinases which have been experimentally confirmed as possible targets of the complexes are also predicted by the three methods as one of the most targeted receptors while TopII and HDAC7 are predicted by two and one of the methods as best targets. The interesting features of the binding of the complexes show that some of the complexes preferentially target specific macromolecules than the others, which is an indication of their specificity and possibility of their therapeutic combination without severe side effects that may come from competition for the same target. Also, introduction of unusual ligands is found to significantly improve the activities of most of the complexes studied. Strong correlations are observed for the predicted binding sites and the orientation of the complexes within the binding site by the three methods of docking. However there are disparities in the ranking of the complexes by the three method of docking, especially that of Glide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter A. Ajibade
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +27-0-40-602-2055, Fax: +27-0-86-518-1225
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112
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Hummer AA, Heffeter P, Berger W, Filipits M, Batchelor D, Büchel GE, Jakupec MA, Keppler BK, Rompel A. X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy to resolve the in vivo chemistry of the redox-active indazolium trans-[Tetrachlorobis(1H-indazole)ruthenate(III)] (KP1019). J Med Chem 2013; 56:1182-96. [PMID: 23282017 PMCID: PMC3579476 DOI: 10.1021/jm301648f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Indazolium trans-[tetrachlorobis(1H-indazole)ruthenate(III)] (1, KP1019) and
its analogue
sodium trans-[tetrachlorobis(1H-indazole)ruthenate(III)]
(2, KP1339) are promising redox-active anticancer drug
candidates that were investigated with X-ray absorption near edge
structure spectroscopy. The analysis was based on the concept of the
coordination charge and ruthenium model compounds representing possible
coordinations and oxidation states in vivo. 1 was investigated
in citrate saline buffer (pH 3.5) and in carbonate buffer (pH 7.4)
at 37 °C for different time intervals. Interaction studies on 1 with glutathione in saline buffer and apo-transferrin in
carbonate buffer were undertaken, and the coordination of 1 and 2 in tumor tissues was studied too. The most likely
coordinations and oxidation states of the compound under the above
mentioned conditions were assigned. Microprobe X-ray fluorescence
of tumor thin sections showed the strong penetration of ruthenium
into the tumor tissue, with the highest concentrations near blood
vessels and in the edge regions of the tissue samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred A Hummer
- Institut für Biophysikalische Chemie, Universität Wien, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Wien, Austria
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113
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Levina A, Aitken JB, Gwee YY, Lim ZJ, Liu M, Singharay AM, Wong PF, Lay PA. Biotransformations of anticancer ruthenium(III) complexes: an X-ray absorption spectroscopic study. Chemistry 2013; 19:3609-19. [PMID: 23361836 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
An anti-metastatic drug, NAMI-A ((ImH)[Ru(III) Cl4 (Im)(dmso)]; Im=imidazole, dmso=S-bound dimethylsulfoxide), and a cytotoxic drug, KP1019 ((IndH)[Ru(III) Cl4 (Ind)2 ]; Ind=indazole), are two Ru-based anticancer drugs in human clinical trials. Their reactivities under biologically relevant conditions, including aqueous buffers, protein solutions or gels (e.g, albumin, transferrin and collagen), undiluted blood serum, cell-culture medium and human liver (HepG2) cancer cells, were studied by Ru K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). These XAS data were fitted from linear combinations of spectra of well-characterised Ru compounds. The absence of XAS data from the parent drugs in these fits points to profound changes in the coordination environments of Ru(III) . The fits point to the presence of Ru(IV/III) clusters and binding of Ru(III) to S-donor groups, amine/imine and carboxylato groups of proteins. Cellular uptake of KP1019 is approximately 20-fold higher than that of NAMI-A under the same conditions, but it diminishes drastically after the decomposition of KP1019 in cell-culture media, which indicate that the parent complex is taken in by cells through passive diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aviva Levina
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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114
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Hermann G, Heffeter P, Falta T, Berger W, Hann S, Koellensperger G. In vitro studies on cisplatin focusing on kinetic aspects of intracellular chemistry by LC-ICP-MS. Metallomics 2013; 5:636-47. [DOI: 10.1039/c3mt20251h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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115
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Webb MI, Walsby CJ. EPR as a probe of the intracellular speciation of ruthenium(iii) anticancer compounds. Metallomics 2013; 5:1624-33. [DOI: 10.1039/c3mt00090g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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116
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Vidimar V, Meng X, Klajner M, Licona C, Fetzer L, Harlepp S, Hébraud P, Sidhoum M, Sirlin C, Loeffler JP, Mellitzer G, Sava G, Pfeffer M, Gaiddon C. Induction of caspase 8 and reactive oxygen species by ruthenium-derived anticancer compounds with improved water solubility and cytotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:1428-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2012] [Revised: 08/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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117
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Pernot M, Bastogne T, Barry NP, Therrien B, Koellensperger G, Hann S, Reshetov V, Barberi-Heyob M. Systems biology approach for in vivo photodynamic therapy optimization of ruthenium-porphyrin compounds. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2012; 117:80-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2012.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Stevens SK, Strehle AP, Miller RL, Gammons SH, Hoffman KJ, McCarty JT, Miller ME, Stultz LK, Hanson PK. The anticancer ruthenium complex KP1019 induces DNA damage, leading to cell cycle delay and cell death in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Pharmacol 2012; 83:225-34. [PMID: 23090979 DOI: 10.1124/mol.112.079657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The anticancer ruthenium complex trans-[tetrachlorobis(1H-indazole)ruthenate(III)], otherwise known as KP1019, has previously been shown to inhibit proliferation of ovarian tumor cells, induce DNA damage and apoptosis in colon carcinoma cells, and reduce tumor size in animal models. Notably, no dose-limiting toxicity was observed in a Phase I clinical trial. Despite these successes, KP1019's precise mechanism of action remains poorly understood. To determine whether Saccharomyces cerevisiae might serve as an effective model for characterizing the cellular response to KP1019, we first confirmed that this drug is internalized by yeast and induces mutations, cell cycle delay, and cell death. We next examined KP1019 sensitivity of strains defective in DNA repair, ultimately showing that rad1Δ, rev3Δ, and rad52Δ yeast are hypersensitive to KP1019, suggesting that nucleotide excision repair (NER), translesion synthesis (TLS), and recombination each play a role in drug tolerance. These data are consistent with published work showing that KP1019 causes interstrand cross-links and bulky DNA adducts in mammalian cell lines. Published research also showed that mammalian cell lines resistant to other chemotherapeutic agents exhibit only modest resistance, and sometimes hypersensitivity, to KP1019. Here we report similar findings for S. cerevisiae. Whereas gain-of-function mutations in the transcription activator-encoding gene PDR1 are known to increase expression of drug pumps, causing resistance to structurally diverse toxins, we now demonstrate that KP1019 retains its potency against yeast carrying the hypermorphic alleles PDR1-11 or PDR1-3. Combined, these data suggest that S. cerevisiae could serve as an effective model system for identifying evolutionarily conserved modulators of KP1019 sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon K Stevens
- Department of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, 900 Arkadelphia Rd. Birmingham, AL 35254, USA
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119
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Biological activity of ruthenium and osmium arene complexes with modified paullones in human cancer cells. J Inorg Biochem 2012; 116:180-7. [PMID: 23037896 PMCID: PMC3492762 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2012.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to combine the ability of indolobenzazepines (paullones) to inhibit cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) and that of platinum-group metal ions to interact with proteins and DNA, ruthenium(II) and osmium(II) arene complexes with paullones were prepared, expecting synergies and an increase of solubility of paullones. Complexes with the general formula [MIICl(η6-p-cymene)L]Cl, where M = Ru (1, 3) or Os (2, 4), and L = L1 (1, 2) or L2 (3, 4), L1 = N-(9-bromo-7,12-dihydroindolo[3,2-d][1]-benzazepin-6(5H)-yliden-N′-(2-hydroxybenzylidene)azine and L2 = N-(9-bromo-7,12-dihydroindolo[3,2-d][1]benzazepin-6-yl)-N′-[3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpyridin-4-yl-methylene]azinium chloride (L2*HCl), were now investigated regarding cytotoxicity and accumulation in cancer cells, impact on the cell cycle, capacity of inhibiting DNA synthesis and inducing apoptosis as well as their ability to inhibit Cdk activity. The MTT (3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide) assay yielded IC50 values in the nanomolar to low micromolar range. In accordance with cytotoxicity data, the BrdU assay showed that 1 is the most and 4 the least effective of these compounds regarding inhibition of DNA synthesis. Effects on the cell cycle are minor, although concentration-dependent inhibition of Cdk2/cyclin E activity was observed in cell-free experiments. Induction of apoptosis is most pronounced for complex 1, accompanied by a low fraction of necrotic cells, as observed by annexin V–fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide staining and flow cytometric analysis.
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120
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Jungwirth U, Xanthos DN, Gojo J, Bytzek AK, Körner W, Heffeter P, Abramkin SA, Jakupec MA, Hartinger CG, Windberger U, Galanski M, Keppler BK, Berger W. Anticancer activity of methyl-substituted oxaliplatin analogs. Mol Pharmacol 2012; 81:719-28. [PMID: 22331606 DOI: 10.1124/mol.111.077321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxaliplatin is successfully used in systemic cancer therapy. However, resistance development and severe adverse effects are limiting factors for curative cancer treatment with oxaliplatin. The purpose of this study was to comparatively investigate in vitro and in vivo anticancer properties as well as the adverse effects of two methyl-substituted enantiomerically pure oxaliplatin analogs [[(1R,2R,4R)-4-methyl-1,2-cyclohexanediamine] oxalatoplatinum(II) (KP1537), and [(1R,2R,4S)-4-methyl-1,2-cyclohexanediamine]oxalatoplatinum(II) (KP1691)] and to evaluate the impact of stereoisomerism. Although the novel oxaliplatin analogs demonstrated in multiple aspects activities comparable with those of the parental compound, several key differences were discovered. The analogs were characterized by reduced vulnerability to resistance mechanisms such as p53 mutations, reduced dependence on immunogenic cell death induction, and distinctly attenuated adverse effects including weight loss and cold hyperalgesia. Stereoisomerism of the substituted methyl group had a complex and in some aspects even contradictory impact on drug accumulation and anticancer activity both in vitro and in vivo. To summarize, methyl-substituted oxaliplatin analogs harbor improved therapeutic characteristics including significantly reduced adverse effects. Hence, they might be promising metal-based anticancer drug candidates for further (pre)clinical evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Jungwirth
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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121
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Aitken JB, Antony S, Weekley CM, Lai B, Spiccia L, Harris HH. Distinct cellular fates for KP1019 and NAMI-A determined by X-ray fluorescence imaging of single cells. Metallomics 2012; 4:1051-6, 1007. [DOI: 10.1039/c2mt20072d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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122
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Webb MI, Chard RA, Al-Jobory YM, Jones MR, Wong EWY, Walsby CJ. Pyridine analogues of the antimetastatic Ru(III) complex NAMI-A targeting non-covalent interactions with albumin. Inorg Chem 2011; 51:954-66. [PMID: 22224431 DOI: 10.1021/ic202029e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A series of pyridine-based derivatives of the antimetastatic Ru(III) complex imidazolium [trans-RuCl(4)(1H-imidazole)(DMSO-S)] (NAMI-A) have been synthesized along with their sodium-ion compensated analogues. These compounds have been characterized by X-ray crystallography, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), NMR, and electrochemistry, with the goal of probing their noncovalent interactions with human serum albumin (hsA). EPR studies show that the choice of imidazolium ligands and compensating ions does not strongly influence the rates of ligand exchange processes in aqueous buffer solutions. By contrast, the rate of formation and persistence of interactions of the complexes with hsA is found to be strongly dependent on the properties of the axial ligands. The stability of noncovalent binding is shown to correlate with the anticipated ability of the various pyridine ligands to interact with the hydrophobic binding domains of hsA. These interactions prevent the oligomerization of the complexes in solution and limit the rate of covalent binding to albumin amino acid side chains. Electrochemical studies demonstrate relatively high reduction potentials for these complexes, leading to the formation of Ru(II) species in aqueous solutions containing biological reducing agents, such as ascorbate. However, EPR measurements indicate that while noncovalent interactions with hsA do not prevent reduction, covalent binding produces persistent mononuclear Ru(III) species under these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael I Webb
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
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123
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Kamčeva T, Flemmig J, Damnjanović B, Arnhold J, Mijatović A, Petković M. Inhibitory effect of platinum and ruthenium bipyridyl complexes on porcine pancreatic phospholipase A2. Metallomics 2011; 3:1056-63. [PMID: 21909579 DOI: 10.1039/c1mt00088h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) plays an important role in cellular homeostasis as well as in the process of carcinogenesis. Effects of metallo-drugs used as chemotherapeutics on the activity of this enzyme are unknown. In this work, the interaction between porcine pancreatic PLA(2) and two selected transition metal complexes--tetrachloro(bipyridine) platinum(IV) ([PtCl(4)(bipy)]) and dichloro (bipyridine) ruthenium(III)chloride ([RuCl(2)(bipy)(2)]Cl)--was studied. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and fluorescence spectroscopy have been used to analyse the enzyme activity in the absence and presence of metal complexes and to verify potential binding of these drugs to the enzyme. The tested metal complexes decreased the activity of phospholipase A(2) in an uncompetitive inhibition mode. A binding of the ruthenium complex near the active site of the enzyme could be evidenced and possible modes of interaction are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Kamčeva
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Nuclear Sciences Vinča, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovića Alasa 12-14, Belgrade, Serbia.
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124
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Smith GS, Therrien B. Targeted and multifunctional arene ruthenium chemotherapeutics. Dalton Trans 2011; 40:10793-800. [PMID: 21858344 DOI: 10.1039/c1dt11007a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of multifunctionalities for tumour targeting is becoming a popular strategy toward the development of new therapeutic agents. In particular, the multifaceted potential of ruthenium(II)-arene complexes show great promise as chemotherapeutics. An ever-increasing number of papers dealing with the integration of ruthenium complexes with biologically active molecules to derive bioorganometallic molecules of chemotherapeutic significance have been published in recent years. This perspective review presents a short overview of multifunctional ruthenium-based drugs, especially those containing arene ruthenium complexes, with the emphasis on the combination of photosensitizers with ruthenium complexes for the preparation of novel multifunctional photodynamic therapy agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S Smith
- University of Cape Town, Department of Chemistry, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
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125
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Jungwirth U, Kowol CR, Keppler BK, Hartinger CG, Berger W, Heffeter P. Anticancer activity of metal complexes: involvement of redox processes. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011; 15:1085-127. [PMID: 21275772 PMCID: PMC3371750 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 365] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cells require tight regulation of the intracellular redox balance and consequently of reactive oxygen species for proper redox signaling and maintenance of metal (e.g., of iron and copper) homeostasis. In several diseases, including cancer, this balance is disturbed. Therefore, anticancer drugs targeting the redox systems, for example, glutathione and thioredoxin, have entered focus of interest. Anticancer metal complexes (platinum, gold, arsenic, ruthenium, rhodium, copper, vanadium, cobalt, manganese, gadolinium, and molybdenum) have been shown to strongly interact with or even disturb cellular redox homeostasis. In this context, especially the hypothesis of "activation by reduction" as well as the "hard and soft acids and bases" theory with respect to coordination of metal ions to cellular ligands represent important concepts to understand the molecular modes of action of anticancer metal drugs. The aim of this review is to highlight specific interactions of metal-based anticancer drugs with the cellular redox homeostasis and to explain this behavior by considering chemical properties of the respective anticancer metal complexes currently either in (pre)clinical development or in daily clinical routine in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Jungwirth
- Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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126
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Kennedy DC, Patrick BO, James BR. Cationic ruthenium(III) maltolato–imidazole complexes — Synthesis, characterization, and antiproliferatory activity*Adapted from the Ph.D. thesis of D.C. Kennedy (see the References section). CAN J CHEM 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/v11-074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cationic RuIII complexes, trans-[Ru(ma)2(L)2]CF3SO3, where Hma = maltol = 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrone; L = imidazole (Im) (complex 2), 1(N)-methylimidazole (N-MeIm) (3), 2-methylimidazole (2-MeIm) (4), and 4-methylimidazole (4-MeIm) (5), were synthesized via the known L = EtOH (complex 1a), and characterized by elemental analysis, 1H NMR and IR spectroscopies, mass spectrometry, cyclic voltammetry, and (for 3 and 4) by X-ray crystallography. The trans-[Ru(ma)2(H2O)2]CF3SO3 complex (1b) was inadvertently isolated and characterized crystallographically, and the monomaltolato species [Ru(ma)(N-MeIm)4][CF3SO3]2 (6) was also isolated and characterized. In vitro antiproliferatory activity of complexes 2−6 against human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-435S) was tested using an MTT assay: 4 and 5 exhibit the lowest IC50 values, ~5 and ~15 µmol/L, respectively, whereas cisplatin exhibits an IC50 value of ~35 µmol/L against this cell line.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C. Kennedy
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Brian O. Patrick
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Brian R. James
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
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127
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Timerbaev A, Pawlak K, Gabbiani C, Messori L. Recent progress in the application of analytical techniques to anticancer metallodrug proteomics. Trends Analyt Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2011.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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128
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Balcerzak M. Methods for the Determination of Platinum Group Elements in Environmental and Biological Materials: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2011.588922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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129
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Bartel C, Egger AE, Jakupec MA, Heffeter P, Galanski M, Berger W, Keppler BK. Influence of ascorbic acid on the activity of the investigational anticancer drug KP1019. J Biol Inorg Chem 2011; 16:1205-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-011-0809-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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130
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Groessl M, Zava O, Dyson PJ. Cellular uptake and subcellular distribution of ruthenium-based metallodrugs under clinical investigation versus cisplatin. Metallomics 2011; 3:591-9. [PMID: 21399784 DOI: 10.1039/c0mt00101e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cellular uptake and subcellular distribution including adduct formation with genomic DNA and uptake into mitochondria of two ruthenium(iii)-based drugs in clinical trials, KP1019 and NAMI-A, and cisplatin, was investigated in cisplatin sensitive and resistant A2780 human ovarian carcinoma cells. These data indicate that reduced metal uptake into mitochondria in combination with increased binding towards low molecular weight components involved in detoxification mechanisms is essential for cisplatin resistance. The ruthenium drugs show distinct differences with respect to cisplatin, especially in the cisplatin resistant cells; in comparison to the sensitive cells, KP1019 exhibits higher cytotoxicity and an only slightly changed metabolism of the drug, whereas NAMI-A treatment results in increased intracellular ruthenium levels and a higher number of ruthenium-DNA adducts. In addition, size exclusion-inductively coupled mass spectrometry indicates that adduct formation with high molecular weight components in the particulate and nuclear fractions is crucial for the therapeutic effect of KP1019 in both cisplatin resistant and sensitive cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Groessl
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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131
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Wu B, Ong MS, Groessl M, Adhireksan Z, Hartinger CG, Dyson PJ, Davey CA. A Ruthenium Antimetastasis Agent Forms Specific Histone Protein Adducts in the Nucleosome Core. Chemistry 2011; 17:3562-6. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201100298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bin Wu
- Division of Structural and Computational Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Fax: (+65) 6791‐3856
- Current address: Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Center for Life Science Building, 3 Blackfan Circle, Boston 02115 (USA)
| | - Michelle S. Ong
- Division of Structural and Computational Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Fax: (+65) 6791‐3856
| | - Michael Groessl
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne (Switzerland)
| | - Zenita Adhireksan
- Division of Structural and Computational Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Fax: (+65) 6791‐3856
| | - Christian G. Hartinger
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Street 42, 1090 Vienna (Austria)
| | - Paul J. Dyson
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne (Switzerland)
| | - Curt A. Davey
- Division of Structural and Computational Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Fax: (+65) 6791‐3856
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