The presence of bacteria species in semen and sperm quality

A new micro swim-up procedure for sperm preparation in ICSI treatments: preliminary microbiological testing

Objective

This study aimed to assess the levels of microbial contamination in semen samples before and after the micro swim-up (MSU) procedure in intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The new method is an upgrade to the classic wash swim-up procedure.

Methods

Semen analysis and microbiological tests were carried out before and after the MSU procedure. A total of twenty semen samples were analyzed.

Results

Pathogens were observed in semen samples only before MSU and never after ICSI. Microbiological tests revealed a large prevalence of gram-positive cocci [Staphylococcus spp. (n=16, 80%) and viridans streptococci (n=10, 50%)]. The results of this study indicate that direct MSU in ICSI improved the ICSI workflow.

Conclusion

The new workflow is faster and more affordable, and is likely to prevent infection problems that could arise from the normal microbial flora of the semen.

Screening Test for Shed Skin Cells by Measuring the Ratio of Human DNA to Staphylococcus epidermidis DNA

A novel screening method for shed skin cells by detecting Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), which is a resident bacterium on skin, was developed. Staphylococcus epidermidis was detected using real-time PCR. Staphylococcus epidermidis was detected in all 20 human skin surface samples. Although not present in blood and urine samples, S. epidermidis was detected in 6 of 20 saliva samples, and 5 of 18 semen samples. The ratio of human DNA to S. epidermidisDNA was significantly smaller in human skin surface samples than in saliva and semen samples in which S. epidermidis was detected. Therefore, although skin cells could not be identified by detecting only S. epidermidis, they could be distinguished by measuring the S. epidermidis to human DNA ratio. This method could be applied to casework touch samples, which suggests that it is useful for screening whether skin cells and human DNA are present on potential evidentiary touch samples.

Evaluation of profertility effect of probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum 2621 in a murine model

Background & objectives:

Urogenital infections of bacterial origin have a high incidence among the female population at reproductive age, affecting the fertility. Strains of Escherichia coli can colonize the vagina and replace natural microflora. Lactobacillus the predominant vaginal microorganism in healthy women, maintains the acidic vaginal pH which inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Studies on Lactobacillus have shown that these can inhibit E. coli growth and vaginal colonization. An alternative therapeutic approach to antimicrobial therapy is to re-establish Lactobacillus in this microbiome through probiotic administration to resurge fertility. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the capability of L. plantarum 2621 strain with probiotic properties, to prevent the vaginal colonization of E. coli causing agglutination of sperms and to evaluate its profertility effect in a murine model.

Methods:

Screened mice were divided into five groups i.e. control group, E. coli group, Lactobacillus group, prophylactic and therapeutic groups. The control group was infused with 20 µl PBS, E.coli group was administered with 10⁶ cfu/20 µl E. coli, and probiotic group was administered with Lactobacillus (10⁸ cfu/20 µl) for 10 consecutive days. In prophylactic group, the vagina was colonized with 10 consecutive doses of Lactobacillus (10⁸ cfu/20 µl). After 24 h, it was followed by 10 day intravaginal infection with E. coli (10⁶ cfu/20 µl) whereas for the therapeutic group vagina was colonized with (10⁶ cfu/20 µl) E. coli for 10 consecutive days, followed by 10 day intravaginal administration with Lactobacillus after 24 h.

Results:

Upon mating and completion of gestation period, control, probiotic and the therapeutic groups had litters in contrast to the prophylactic group and the group administered with E. coli.

Interpretation & conclusions:

Results indicated that Lactobacillus intermitted colonization of pathogenic strains that resulted in reinforcement of natural microflora and resurge fertility.

The importance of transmission electron microscopy analysis of spermatozoa: Diagnostic applications and basic research

This review is aimed at discussing the role of ultrastructural studies on human spermatozoa and evaluating transmission electron microscopy as a diagnostic tool that can complete andrology protocols. It is clear that morphological sperm defects may explain decreased fertilizing potential and acquire particular value in the field of male infertility. Electron microscopy is the best method to identify systematic or monomorphic and non-systematic or polymorphic sperm defects. The systematic defects are characterized by a particular anomaly that affects the vast majority of spermatozoa in a semen sample, whereas a heterogeneous combination of head and tail defects found in variable percentages are typically non-systematic or polymorphic sperm defects. A correct diagnosis of these specific sperm alterations is important for choosing the male infertility's therapy and for deciding to turn to assisted reproduction techniques. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) also represents a valuable method to explore the in vitro effects of different compounds (for example drugs with potential spermicidal activity) on the morphology of human spermatozoa. Finally, TEM used in combination with immunohistochemical techniques, integrates structural and functional aspects that provide a wide horizon in the understanding of sperm physiology and pathology.

ABBREVIATIONS

transmission electron microscopy: TEM; World Health Organization: WHO; light microscopy: LM; motile sperm organelle morphology examination: MSOME; intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection: IMSI; intracytoplasmic sperm injection: ICSI; dysplasia of fibrous sheath: DFS; primary ciliary dyskinesia: PCD; outer dense fibers: ODF; assisted reproduction technologies: ART; scanning electron microscopy: SEM; polyvinylpirrolidone: PVP; tert-butylhydroperoxide: TBHP.

Bacteriospermia and Its Impact on Basic Semen Parameters among Infertile Men

Introduction. Semen analysis is considered as the surrogate marker for male fecundity while assessing infertile men. There are several reasons for altered semen quality and bacteriospermia could be one among them. Thereby the aim of our work is to study the semen culture and its impact on semen parameters among infertile men. Materials and Methods. Semen samples were collected from men attending infertility clinic. Semen parameters were analysed based on WHO guidelines. Also, samples were subjected to culture using standard bacteriological techniques. Results. A total of 85 samples were collected. A number of 47 (55.30%) had normal sperm count, 37 (43.50%) had oligozoospermia, and one (1.17%) had azoospermia. Teratozoospermia was the most common abnormality observed (81.17%) followed by asthenozoospermia (28.23%). The prevalence of bacteriospermia was 35.3%. Enterococcus faecalis (30%) was the most common organism isolated followed by Coagulase negative Staphylococcus (23.33%), Staphylococcus aureus (20%), and E. coli (10%). Other less frequently isolated organisms were Klebsiella pneumoniae (6.66%), Proteus sp. (6.66%), and Citrobacter sp. (3.33%). Conclusion. The presence of asymptomatic bacteriospermia did not correlate with abnormal semen parameters.

Bacteriospermia and Its Impact on Basic Semen Parameters among Infertile Men

Introduction. Semen analysis is considered as the surrogate marker for male fecundity while assessing infertile men. There are several reasons for altered semen quality and bacteriospermia could be one among them. Thereby the aim of our work is to study the semen culture and its impact on semen parameters among infertile men. Materials and Methods. Semen samples were collected from men attending infertility clinic. Semen parameters were analysed based on WHO guidelines. Also, samples were subjected to culture using standard bacteriological techniques. Results. A total of 85 samples were collected. A number of 47 (55.30%) had normal sperm count, 37 (43.50%) had oligozoospermia, and one (1.17%) had azoospermia. Teratozoospermia was the most common abnormality observed (81.17%) followed by asthenozoospermia (28.23%). The prevalence of bacteriospermia was 35.3%. Enterococcus faecalis (30%) was the most common organism isolated followed by Coagulase negative Staphylococcus (23.33%), Staphylococcus aureus (20%), and E. coli (10%). Other less frequently isolated organisms were Klebsiella pneumoniae (6.66%), Proteus sp. (6.66%), and Citrobacter sp. (3.33%). Conclusion. The presence of asymptomatic bacteriospermia did not correlate with abnormal semen parameters.

Seminal Corynebacterium strains in infertile men with and without leucocytospermia

This study aimed to identify seminal Corynebacterium strains in infertile men with and without leucocytospermia. Semen samples from 60 infertile men were allocated into two equal groups: semen samples with leucocytospermia and semen samples without leucocytospermia. Semen culture for Corynebacterium species was carried out on Columbia agar medium confirmed by Gram-stained film and biochemical tests followed by analytical profile index biotyping and antibiotic susceptibility. Bacterial isolates were detected in 20/60 semen cultures (33.3%) as Corynebacteria, Staphylococci, Alpha haemolytic streptococci and E. coli. In all, 12/60 (20%) had Corynebacterium positive semen culture, whereas C. seminal was the major isolated species followed by C. amycolatum, C. jekium and C. urealyticum. There was nonsignificant difference between patients with/without Corynebacterium positive culture regarding sperm concentration and normal sperm morphology; however, in positive cultures sperm motility was significantly lower compared with negative cultures. Antimicrobial sensitivity among Corynebacteria strains was highest for vancomycin, rifampicin then imipenem, ampicillin + sulbactam, ciprofloxacin. It is concluded that positive semen cultures for different Corynebacteria species were demonstrated in infertile men, whereas Corynebacterium seminale was the most common isolated species. Vancomycin, rifampicin then imipenem and ampicillin + sulbactam are recommended as sensitive antibiotics.

Can apoptosis and necrosis coexist in ejaculated human spermatozoa during in vitro semen bacterial infection?

PURPOSE

To evaluate whether ejaculated human spermatozoa undergo complete apoptosis or necrosis during experimental semen bacterial infection in vitro.

METHODS

Apoptotic markers, including mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm), phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, and DNA fragmentation, have been detected simultaneously in ejaculated human sperm after their incubation with a known pathogenic (Escherichia coli), as well as with conditionally pathogenic bacterial strains (Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Bacteroides ureolyticus) and/or leukocytes. The ΔΨm and translocation of PS was evaluated using the JC-1 and Annexin V binding tests, respectively. A modified TUNEL assay with additional staining for sperm viability was used to detect the DNA fragmentation level.

RESULTS

The exposure of ejaculated spermatozoa to bacterial strains was associated with a simultaneous decrease in the percentage of sperm with normal ΔΨm and an increase in the proportion of Annexin V-positive sperm. Additionally, in the presence of S. haemolyticus, B. ureolyticus and/or leukocytes, a significant increase in the percentage of live TUNEL-positive (apoptotic) as well as dead TUNEL-positive (necrotic) sperm cells was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The cellular death observed in spermatozoa in the presence of inflammatory mediators may be due to both apoptosis and necrosis. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that direct contact of conditionally pathogenic bacteria with ejaculated human sperm may play an even greater role in the promotion of apoptosis than in case of some pathogenic bacterial strains. These findings suggest that significant bacteriospermia and leukocytospermia may be direct causes of subfertility or additional negative factors worsening the prognosis of fertility in natural and assisted procreation.

Amino acid metabolism in intestinal bacteria and its potential implications for mammalian reproduction

Reproduction is vital for producing offspring and preserving genetic resources. However, incidences of many reproductive disorders (e.g. miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction, premature delivery and lower sperm quality) have either increased dramatically or remained at high rates over the last decades. Mounting evidence shows a strong correlation between enteral protein nutrition and reproduction. Besides serving as major nutrients in the diet, amino acids (AA) are signaling molecules in the regulation of diverse physiological processes, ranging from spermatogenesis to oocyte fertilization and to embryo implantation. Notably, the numbers of bacteria in the intestine exceed the numbers of host cells by 10 times. Microbes in the small-intestinal lumen actively metabolize large amounts of dietary AA and, therefore, affect the entry of AA into the portal circulation for whole-body utilization. Changes in the composition and abundance of AA-metabolizing bacteria in the gut during pregnancy, as well as their translocation to the uterus, may alter uterine function and epigenetic modifications of maternal physiology and metabolism, which are crucial for pregnancy recognition and fetal development. Thus, the presence of the maternal gut microbiota and AA metabolites in the intrauterine environments (e.g. endometrium and placenta) and breast milk is likely a unique signature for the programming of the whole-body microbiome and metabolism in both the fetus and infant. Dietary intervention with functional AA, probiotics and prebiotics to alter the abundance and activity of intestinal bacteria may ameliorate or prevent the development of metabolic syndrome, while improving reproductive performance in both males and females as well as their offspring.

Bacterial communities in semen from men of infertile couples: metagenomic sequencing reveals relationships of seminal microbiota to semen quality

Some previous studies have identified bacteria in semen as being a potential factor in male infertility. However, only few types of bacteria were taken into consideration while using PCR-based or culturing methods. Here we present an analysis approach using next-generation sequencing technology and bioinformatics analysis to investigate the associations between bacterial communities and semen quality. Ninety-six semen samples collected were examined for bacterial communities, measuring seven clinical criteria for semen quality (semen volume, sperm concentration, motility, Kruger's strict morphology, antisperm antibody (IgA), Atypical, and leukocytes). Computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA) was also performed. Results showed that the most abundant genera among all samples were Lactobacillus (19.9%), Pseudomonas (9.85%), Prevotella (8.51%) and Gardnerella (4.21%). The proportion of Lactobacillus and Gardnerella was significantly higher in the normal samples, while that of Prevotella was significantly higher in the low quality samples. Unsupervised clustering analysis demonstrated that the seminal bacterial communities were clustered into three main groups: Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas, and Prevotella predominant group. Remarkably, most normal samples (80.6%) were clustered in Lactobacillus predominant group. The analysis results showed seminal bacteria community types were highly associated with semen health. Lactobacillus might not only be a potential probiotic for semen quality maintenance, but also might be helpful in countering the negative influence of Prevotella and Pseudomonas. In this study, we investigated whole seminal bacterial communities and provided the most comprehensive analysis of the association between bacterial community and semen quality. The study significantly contributes to the current understanding of the etiology of male fertility.

Presence of aerobic micro-organisms and their influence on basic semen parameters in infertile men

Urogenital tract infections in males are one of the significant etiological factors in infertility. In this prospective study, 72 patients with abnormal semen parameters or any other symptoms of urogenital tract infection were examined. Semen analysis according to the WHO 2010 manual was performed together with microbial assessment: aerobic bacteria culture, Chlamydia antigen test, Candida culture, Ureaplasma and Mycoplasma-specific culture. In total, 69.4% of semen samples were positive for at least one micro-organism. Ureaplasma sp. was the most common micro-organism found in 33% of semen samples of infertile patients with suspected male genital tract infection. The 2nd most common micro-organisms were Enterococcus faecalis (12.5%) and Escherichia coli (12.5%), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (7%), Chlamydia trachomatis (7%) and Candida sp. (5.6%). Generally, bacteria were sensitive to at least one of the antibiotics tested. No statistically significant relationship was observed between the presence of aerobic micro-organisms in semen and basic semen parameters: volume, pH, concentration, total count, motility, vitality and morphology.

Deficient human β-defensin 1 underlies male infertility associated with poor sperm motility and genital tract infection

Genital tract infection and reduced sperm motility are considered two pivotal etiological factors for male infertility associated with leukocytospermia and asthenozoospermia, respectively. We demonstrate that the amount of human β-defensin 1 (DEFB1) in sperm from infertile men exhibiting either leukocytospermia or asthenozoospermia, both of which are associated with reduced motility and reduced bactericidal activity in sperm, is much lower compared to that in normal fertile sperm. Interference with DEFB1 function also decreases both motility and bactericidal activity in normal sperm, whereas treatment with recombinant DEFB1 markedly restores DEFB1 expression, bactericidal activity, sperm quality, and egg-penetrating ability in sperm from both asthenozoospermia and leukocytospermia patients. DEFB1 interacts with chemokine receptor type 6 (CCR6) in sperm and triggers Ca(2+) mobilization, which is important for sperm motility. Interference with CCR6 function also reduces motility and bactericidal activity of normal sperm. The present finding explains a common defect in male infertility associated with both asthenozoospermia and leukocytospermia, indicating a dual role of DEFB1 in defending male fertility. These results also suggest that the expression of DEFB1 and CCR6 may have diagnostic potential and that treatment of defective sperm with recombinant DEFB1 protein may be a feasible therapeutic approach for male infertility associated with poor sperm motility and genital tract infection.

Antibiotics supplemented culture media can eliminate non-specific bacteria from human semen during sperm preparation for intra uterine insemination

RATIONALE:

Bacterial flora can be isolated from many semen samples of subfertile males. Bacteriospermia can compromise the outcome of intra uterine insemination (IUI) by contaminating the post-processed sperm sample.

OBJECTIVES:

The objective of the present study is to determine the efficacy of penicillin and streptomycin in eliminating the bacteria from semen samples in the sperm processing procedure, and to assess the effects of antibiotics on sperm motility, survivability, and pregnancy rates.

DESIGN AND SETTINGS:

A prospectively controlled study was carried out using couples undergoing IUI with their informed consent.

INTERVENTION:

Sperm processing using the swim-up technique in penicillin and streptomycin supplemented culture medium.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS:

Couples were consecutively allocated in two groups for sperm processing (a) Group AB+ (antibiotics supplemented culture medium, n = 33) and (b) Group AB− (antibiotic free culture medium, n = 33). Semen culture was performed before and after sperm processing. Sperm motility was assessed immediately after processing and after 24 h of incubation.

RESULTS:

Bacterial isolates were found in 20 (60.6%) and 22 (66.1%) of samples before processing in Groups AB+ and AB− respectively. Addition of antibiotics resulted in completely eliminating non-specific bacteria from semen samples without affecting sperm motility. In vitro survival rate of sperm enhanced in AB+ group compared with AB− group (motile sperm after 24 h), 62.21% (standard deviation [SD]: 37.27) versus 41.36% (SD: 30.78), P = 0.012. Pregnancy rate, was comparable between two groups (9% in Group AB+ vs. 6% in Group AB−, P = 0.45).

CONCLUSION:

Penicillin streptomycin combination could completely eliminate non-specific bacteria from semen samples during sperm processing in this population. The types of antibiotics and dosage used did not seem to have any harmful effects on human sperm.

Efficacy of two sperm preparation techniques in reducing non-specific bacterial species from human semen

CONTEXT

Artificial reproductive techniques using seminal preparations with bacteria may cause pelvic inflammatory disease and its sequalae.

AIMS

To assess efficacy of two sperm preparation techniques to clear bacteria and the effect of bacteriospermia on sperm recovery rates.

SETTINGS AND DESIGN

A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out among males of subfertile couples.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Semen samples were randomly allocated into swim-up method (group S, n = 68) and density gradient method (group D, n = 50) for sperm preparation. Seminal fluid analysis and bacterial cultures were performed in each sample before and after sperm preparation.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

McNemar's chi-squared test and independent samples t-test in SPSS version 16.0 were used.

RESULTS

Organisms were found in 86 (72.88%) out of 118 samples, before sperm preparation; Streptococcus species (n = 40, 46.51% of which 14 were Group D Streptococcus species), Coagulase negative Staphylococcus species (n = 17, 19.76%), Staphylococcus aureus (n = 13, 15.11%), Coliform species (n = 11, 12.79% of which 09 were Escherichia coli) and Corynebacterium species (n = 5, 5.81%). There was a statistically significant reduction of culture positive samples in raw vs. processed samples; in group S, 49 (72.05%) vs. 16 (23.52%) and in group D, 37 (74%) vs. 18 (36%). In group S and D, mean (SD) recovery rates of culture positive vs. culture negative samples were 39.44% (SD-14.02) vs. 44.22% (SD-22.38), P = 0.39 and 52.50% (SD-37.16) vs. 49.58% (SD-40.32), P = 0.82 respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Both sperm preparation methods significantly reduced bacteria in semen, but total clearance was not achieved. Sperm recovery rate was not affected by bacteriospermia.

Microbiota of the seminal fluid from healthy and infertile men

OBJECTIVE

To explore potential causes of male infertility by determining the composition and structure of commensal bacterial communities in seminal fluids.

DESIGN

Microscopy of Gram-stained semen samples and classification of 16S rRNA gene sequences to determine the species composition of semen bacterial communities.

SETTING

Clinical andrology laboratory and academic research laboratories.

PATIENT(S)

Nineteen sperm donors and 58 infertility patients.

INTERVENTION(S)

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Classification of 16S rRNA gene sequences, clustering of seminal microbial communities, and multiple statistical tests.

RESULT(S)

High numbers of diverse kinds of bacteria were present in most samples of both sperm donors and infertility patients. The bacterial communities varied widely among subjects, but they could be clustered into six groups based on similarities in composition and the rank abundances of taxa. Overall, there were no significant differences between sperm donors and infertility patients. However, multiple statistical tests showed a significant negative association between sperm quality and the presence of Anaerococcus. The results also indicated that many of the bacterial taxa identified in semen also occur in the vaginal communities of some women, especially those with bacterial vaginosis, which suggests that heterosexual sex partners may share bacteria.

CONCLUSION(S)

Diverse kinds of bacteria were present in the human semen, but there were no significant differences between sperm donors and infertility patients. The presence of Anaerococcus might be a biomarker for low sperm quality.

Impairment by sperm agglutinating factor isolated from Escherichia coli: receptor specific interactions

In an earlier work done in our laboratory, we have been able to isolate a sperm agglutinating strain of Escherichia coli from the semen sample of a male attending infertility clinic. Further, factor responsible for sperm agglutination (SAF) was isolated and purified, and, using SAF as a tool, corresponding SAF binding receptor from human spermatozoa has been purified. Characterization of SAF and SAF binding receptor using MALDI-TOF showed homology to glutamate decarboxylase and MHC class I molecule, respectively. Coincubation of SAF with spermatozoa not only resulted in spermagglutination but could also compromise other sperm parameters, namely, Mg²⁺ dependent ATPase activity and apoptosis. Intravaginal administration of SAF could lead to infertility in Balb/c mice. SAF induced impairment of sperm parameters, and infertility was observed to be due to interaction of SAF with sperm surface receptor component as, when purified receptor was introduced, receptor completely inhibited all the detrimental effects induced by SAF. From these results, it could be concluded that interaction of SAF with spermatozoa is receptor mediated.

An improved experimental model for understanding the impact of sperm DNA fragmentation on human pregnancy following ICSI

Using donor oocytes of proven fertility, the effect of sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF) and motility on reproductive success was examined in 70 couples undergoing ICSI. Both SDF and sperm motility were assessed at the time of sperm injection and using the same sperm sample that was processed for ICSI. While there was no difference in the fertilization rate, cleavage rate, embryo quality, or sperm motility between pregnant and nonpregnant couples, the SDF of nonpregnant couples (SDF = 23.9%) was higher than that of pregnant couples (SDF = 17.0%; U Mann-Whitney 347; P = .002). Using a combination of the sensitivity and specificity measures from the production of ROC (receiver-operating characteristic) curves and the Youden index, we determined a threshold SDF value for our data set of 17% for predicting pregnancy (77.8% sensitivity and 71.1% specificity). Our results suggest that proven donor oocytes in combination with SDF assessment at the time of sperm injection represent a useful experimental model for reducing the confounding influences of sperm DNA repair by the oocyte and iatrogenic sperm damage.

Infertility as a consequence of spermagglutinating Staphylococcus aureus colonization in genital tract of female mice

Various studies have shown Staphylococcus aureus to be one of the most prevalent organism in male and female genital tract but most practitioners dismiss it as mere contamination which is assumed to be of no significance. However, it is now suggested that the presence of this organism should not be ignored, as incubation of spermatozoa with S. aureus results in reduced sperm motility. Although S. aureus has been reported to cause immobilization of spermatozoa, however, its role in infertility has yet to be elucidated. The present study was designed to establish a spermagglutinating strain of S. aureus isolated from the cervix of a woman with unexplained infertility, in mouse and evaluate its effect on fertility outcome. Female Balb/c mice were inoculated intravaginally with different doses of S. aureus (10(4), 10(6) or 10(8)cfu/20 µl) for 10 consecutive days. Microbial colonization monitored every 3(rd) day by vaginal cultures, revealed that strain could efficiently colonize mouse vagina. Mating on day 12, with proven breeder males led to 100% decrease in fertility as compared to control. Even a single dose of 10(6) or 10(8)cfu could lead to vaginal colonization which persisted for 10 days followed by gradual clearing till 21 days, vaginal cultures were negative thereafter. Female mice mated on day 7 (culture positive), were rendered infertile, however, the mice mated on day 22 (culture negative), retained fertility and delivered pups indicating its role in provoking infertility. Further, except infertility, no other clinical manifestation could be seen apparently or histologically. However, when a non-spermagglutinating/immobilizing standard strain of S. aureus MTCC6625 was inoculated intravaginally at 10(8)cfu for 10 days followed by mating on day 12, fertility was observed in all the female mice. This supports the hypothesis that infertility observed in the former groups was as a result of colonization with spermagglutinating strain of S. aureus.

Role of prostatic epithelium basement membrane incompetence in the pathogenesis of chronic prostatitis

Prostatic inflammation is associated with infections penetrating through the urethra. This inflammation is treated by long courses of wide-spectrum antibiotics. However, the most frequent cause of prostatitis is Escherichia coli and other enteric flora. Electron microscopy of biopsy specimens from the prostate detected gaps in the prostatic epithelium basement membrane, their size explaining the penetration of enteric flora into the prostate. These data suggest another view on the pathogenesis of prostatitis and approaches to improvement of therapy for this disease.

Effects of seasons on some semen parameters and bacterial contamination of Awassi ram semen

The objectives of the present study were to determine the effects of season on some semen parameters and bacterial contamination of Awassi ram semen. Semen samples from six mature Awassi rams were used in this study. Semen collection was performed with artificial vagina every week, from September 2009 to October 2010. Volume, sperm concentration, mass motility, individual motility, percentage live sperm and sperm abnormalities were evaluated. Moreover, determination of viable bacterial count of the rams was also recorded weekly. Higher (p < 0.05) semen volume in the hot summer and spring months was observed of August (1.55 ± 0.08 ml) and March (1.27 ± 0.15 ml). Sperm concentration was highest (p < 0.05) in the breeding season (late summer to early autumn) of September (4.21 ± 0.86 × 10(9) sperm/ml). Sperm individual motility and percent of live sperm observed in August (summer) and May (end of spring) when the environmental temperature started to increase were recorded highest values and differed significantly (p < 0.05) from December and January (winter). The highest value of the mean sperm acrosomal defects (13.33 ± 0.63%) was recorded in December. The highest value of the mean viable bacterial count (138.3 ± 21.6) was recorded in July (summer). A significant decrease (p < 0.01) in the mean viable bacterial count was observed from the middle of winter towards the end of spring. The lowest bacterial count was noted in January (60.5 ± 2.98). It could be concluded from the results of the present study that there is an effect of season on ram semen quality, and summer high temperature in northern Iraq has no effect on Awassi ram semen. There is a significant effect of season on bacterial count on Awassi ram semen.

Ureaplasma urealyticum in male infertility in Jilin Province, North-east China, and its relationship with sperm morphology

This study investigated the effects of Ureaplasma urealyticum infection and raised seminal leucocyte levels on sperm morphology in 967 infertile males and 201 fertile healthy volunteers. U. urealyticum infection led to a significant decrease in the percentage of morphologically normal sperm in infertile males. There was a clear correlation between U. urealyticum infection, raised seminal leucocytes and abnormal sperm morphology. The percentage of morphologically normal sperm was significantly lower in U. urealyticum-positive than U. urealyticum-negative infertile males or fertile controls. The percentage of morphologically normal sperm was lowest in U. urealyticum-positive males with raised seminal leucocytes. Previous studies have found raised seminal leucocyte levels to be associated with reactive oxygen species. The authors suggest that oxidative stress contributes to the effects of U. urealyticum on sperm morphology. In conclusion, U. urealyticum infection can negatively affect sperm morphology and this study provided two possible mechanistic explanations.

Dissecting the molecular damage to stallion spermatozoa: the way to improve current cryopreservation protocols?

We review recent developments in the technology of freezing stallion sperm, paying special attention to the molecular lesions that spermatozoa suffer during freezing and thawing, such as osmotic stress, oxidative damage, and apoptotic changes. We also discuss the applicability of colloidal centrifugation in stallion sperm cryobiology. Increased knowledge about the molecular injuries that occur during cryopreservation may lead to improved protective techniques and thus to further improvements in fertility in the current decade.

Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4 on human sperm recognize bacterial endotoxins and mediate apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Bacterial infections of the genital tract are one of the most serious causes of infertility in males. In some human patients with poor semen quality, leukocytospermia has been observed. Because leukocytes express the bacterial-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) responsive Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling cascade and secrete tumor necrosis factor-α, secreted cytokines comprise one, but probably not the only, class of factors that can impact sperm motility.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, we documented that bacterial endotoxins, LPS and peptidoglycan, can be detected in human semen. Furthermore, the addition of endotoxins in the absence of leukocytes directly and significantly reduced the motility and increased the apoptotic rate of both human and mouse sperm and suppressed fertilization by mouse sperm both in vivo and in vitro. The well-known LPS receptor, TLR4, and peptidoglycan receptor, TLR2, were expressed in human and mouse sperm. In Tlr2/4(-/-) double-mutant mice, the negative effects of endotoxins on sperm functions were blocked, suggesting that the bacterial endotoxins mediated activation of TLR-dependent pathways in sperm leading to apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Sperm can recognize bacterial endotoxins by TLRs present in their membranes. The activated TLRs reduce sperm motility, induce sperm apoptosis and significantly impair the potential for fertilization.

Sexual ornamentation reflects antibacterial activity of ejaculates in mallards

Bacteria present in ejaculates can impair sperm function and reduce male reproductive success. Thus, selection should favour the evolution of antimicrobial defences to limit the detrimental effects of sperm-associated bacteria. Additionally, current hypotheses suggest that ornamental traits may signal information about the infection status of an individual or the ability of an individual to resist bacterial-induced sperm damage. However, despite the evolutionary implications of ejaculate antimicrobials, and the putative importance of pathogens for the evolution of male ornamentation, tests of these hypotheses are lacking. We examined the antibacterial activity of semen from mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and tested whether the bactericidal capacity of semen was associated with bill coloration, a sexually selected trait. We show that mallard semen exhibits significant antibacterial activity, as measured by the in vitro capacity to kill Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, we demonstrate that males with more colourful bills have semen with superior bacterial-killing ability. These results suggest that females could use male phenotypic traits to avoid sexually transmitted pathogens and acquire partners whose sperm suffer less bacteria-induced damage.

Pyospermia in an adult cohort with persistent lower urinary tract symptoms and a history of ablated posterior urethral valve

PURPOSE

To assess for the presence of lower urinary tract symptoms and abnormal semen parameters in adults with a history of PUV.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study involved 29 male patients, aged 17-51 (mean 21.5 years), with a history of PUV. Ten had more severe symptoms of frequency, urgency and enuresis, and agreed to detailed study. Medical history, urine analysis, ultrasonography and voiding cystourethrogram were completed for all. Magnetic resonance imaging of the bladder, prostate, seminal vesicles and ejaculatory ducts, ultrasonography of the prostate, as well as semen analysis and culture, and measurement of serum levels of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and testosterone were performed on the 10/29 patients with severe symptoms.

RESULTS

Of the 8/10 patients who provided acceptable semen culture data, 88% (7/8) showed significant bacterial growth and pyospermia. On semen analysis, 3/8 patients had profound decreases in sperm count, 6/8 < 50% motility and 4/8 ≤ 30% normal forms. pH range for semen was 7.2-7.8 (mean 7.45). For all 10 patients, follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormone values were within normal range. Elongation of the prostate was the only radiologic variant of the sex accessory structures.

CONCLUSION

A significant finding of pyospermia and bacterial growth in semen culture is reported in a subpopulation of young men with a history of PUV and severe lower urinary tract symptoms. This may have an impact on fertility.

Leukocytes and oxidative stress: dilemma for sperm function and male fertility

Spermatozoa are constantly exposed to the interphase between oxidation through high amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leukocytes, and reduction by means of scavengers and antioxidants. Considering the very special functions as being the only cells with such high polarization and exerting their functions outside the body, even in a different individual, the female genital tract, the membranes of these cells are chemically composed of an extraordinary high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids. This in turn, renders them very susceptible to oxidative stress, which is defined as an imbalance between oxidation and reduction towards the oxidative status. As a result, ROS deriving from both leukocytes and the male germ cells themselves cause a process called 'lipid peroxidation' and other damages to the sperm cell. On the other hand, a certain limited amount of ROS is essential in order to trigger vital physiological reactions in cells, including capacitation or the acrosome reaction in sperm. The treatment of patients with antioxidants to compensate the oxidative status caused by oxidative stress is highly debated as uncontrolled antioxidative treatment might derail the system towards the reduced status, which is also unphysiological and can even induce cancer. This paradox is called the 'antioxidant paradox'. Therefore, a proper andrological diagnostic work-up, including the evaluation of ROS levels and the antioxidant capacity of the semen, has to be carried out beforehand, aimed at keeping the fine balance between oxidation and scavenging of vital amounts of ROS.

Quality Management Issues in the Assisted Reproduction Laboratory

In the United States, the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) of 1988 describes requirements and guidelines for implementing a quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) program for moderate and high complexity laboratories. These requirements and guidelines apply to Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) laboratories as well. The general topic of QC and QA as it pertains to in vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo transfer (ET) is extensively reviewed. This review summarizes many of the QC and QA events that contribute to the advancement of knowledge in this biotechnological field. These events include control of the culture environment inside and outside of the incubator, as well as factors that affect culture media. This review also discusses, in considerable detail, the QC and the QA that pertain to equipment used within the laboratory and how to control for potential contaminants, which reside within the laboratory. This review provides evidence to indicate the need for laboratory personnel to monitor quality improvement issues on a continuous basis. Personnel must be willing to change as improvements in technology occur in order to meet the ever-evolving demands of a more difficult patient population. Suggestions for meeting these demands are offered.