Antimalarial activity of phenazines from lapachol, β-lapachone and its derivatives against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and Plasmodium berghei in vivo

Synthesis of tricyanomethanesulfonic acid as a novel nanostructured and recyclable solid acid: application at the synthesis of biological henna-based chromenes

A novel and unique nanostructured solid acid, namely tricyanomethanesulfonic acid (TCMS), was designed, synthesized, and attained as an ecofriendly, reusable catalyst for the one-pot three-component synthesis of 2-amino-3-cyano-4-aryl-5,10-dioxo-5,10-dihydro-4H-benzo[g]chromene derivatives from the reaction between aromatic aldehydes, 2-hydroxynaphthalene-1,4-dione (henna), and malononitrile under solvent-free conditions at room temperature with good to excellent yields and a short reaction time. The TCMS catalyst was prepared and fully characterized by FTIR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, mass, X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermal gravimetric (TG), and derivative thermal gravimetric (DTG) analyses. The nanostructured solid acid catalyst was simply recycled at least eight times without any loss of catalytic activity. This process is improved as a safe and appropriate procedure for the synthesis of 2-amino-3-cyano-4-aryl-5,10-dioxo-5,10-dihydro-4H-benzo[g]chromenes using an environmentally friendly and green recyclable catalyst. Thus, TCMS is a good candidate for the synthesis of new molecular organic frameworks and gelators.

Recent developments on ultrasound-assisted one-pot multicomponent synthesis of biologically relevant heterocycles

Heterocycles are the backbone of organic compounds. Specially, N- &O-containing heterocycles represent privileged structural subunits well distributed in naturally occurring compounds with immense biological activities. Multicomponent reactions (MCRs) are becoming valuable tool for synthesizing structurally diverse molecular entities. On the other hand, the last decade has seen a tremendous outburst in modifying chemical processes to make them sustainable for the betterment of our environment. The application of ultrasound in organic synthesis is fulfilling some of the goals of 'green and sustainable chemistry' as it has some advantages over the traditional thermal methods in terms of reaction rates, yields, purity of the products, product selectivity, etc. Therefore the synthesis of biologically relevant heterocycles using one-pot multi-component technique coupled with the application of ultrasound is one of the thrusting areas in the 21st Century among the organic chemists. The present review deals with the "up to date" developments on ultrasound assisted one-pot multi-component synthesis of biologically relevant heterocycles reported so far.

Biologically active perspective synthesis of heteroannulated 8-nitroquinolines with green chemistry approach

A new class of pyrazolo[4,3-c]quinoline (5a-i, 7a-b) and pyrano[3,2-c]quinoline (9a-i) derivatives were designed and synthesized in moderate to good yields by microwave conditions. To enhance the yield of pyrano[3,2-c]quinoline derivatives, multicomponent one-pot synthesis has been developed. The synthesized compounds were identified by spectral and elemental analyses. Compounds 9a and 9i showed good antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains. All of the new compounds exhibited weak to moderate antioxidant activity, compound 9d exerted significant antioxidant power. The cytotoxicity of these compounds were also evaluated against MCF-7 (breast) and A549 (Lung) cancer cell lines. Most of the compounds displayed moderate to good cytotoxic activity against these cell lines. Compound 9i was found to be significantly active in this assay and also induced cell death by apoptosis. Molecular docking studies were carried out using EGFR inhibitor in order to determine the molecular interactions.

Nanofibrous matrixes with biologically active hydroxybenzophenazine pyrazolone compound for cancer theranostics

The nanomaterial with the novel biologically active compounds has been actively investigated for application in cancer research. Substantial use of nanofibrous scaffold for cancer research with potentially bioactive compounds through electrospinning has not been fully explored. Here, we describe the series of fabrication of nanofibrous scaffold loaded with novel potential biologically active hydroxybenzo[a]phenazine pyrazol-5(4H)-one derivatives were designed, synthesized by a simple one-pot, two step four component condensation based on Michael type addition reaction of lawsone, benzene-1,2-diamine, aromatic aldehydes and 3-methyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-5(4H)-one as the substrates. The heterogeneous solid state catalyst (Fe (III) Y-Zeolite) could effectively catalyze the reaction to obtain the product with high yield and short reaction time. The synthesized compounds (5a-5p) were analyzed by NMR, FTIR and HRMS analysis. Compound 5c was confirmed by single crystal XRD studies. All the compounds were biologically evaluated for their potential inhibitory effect on anticancer (MCF-7, Hep-2) and microbial (MRSA, MTCC 201 and FRCA) activities. Among the compounds 5i exhibited the highest levels of inhibitory activity against both MCF-7, Hep-2 cell lines. Furthermore, the compound 5i (BPP) was evaluated for DNA fragmentation, flow cytometry studies and cytotoxicity against MCF-7, Hep-2 and NIH 3T3 fibroblast cell lines. In addition, molecular docking (PDB ID: 1T46) studies were performed to predict the binding affinity of ligand with receptor. Moreover, the synthesized BPP compound was loaded in to the PHB-PCL nanofibrous scaffold to check the cytotoxicity against the MCF-7, Hep-2 and NIH 3T3 fibroblast cell lines. The in vitro apoptotic potential of the PHB-PCL-BPP nanofibrous scaffold was assessed against MCF-7, Hep-2 cancerous cells and fibroblast cells at 12, 24 and 48h respectively. The nanofibrous scaffold with BPP can induce apoptosis and also suppress the proliferation of cancerous cells. We anticipate that our results can provide better potential research in nanomaterial based cancer research.

Effects of a novel β-lapachone derivative on Trypanosoma cruzi: Parasite death involving apoptosis, autophagy and necrosis

Natural products comprise valuable sources for new antiparasitic drugs. Here we tested the effects of a novel β-lapachone derivative on Trypanosoma cruzi parasite survival and proliferation and used microscopy and cytometry techniques to approach the mechanism(s) underlying parasite death. The selectivity index determination indicate that the compound trypanocidal activity was over ten-fold more cytotoxic to epimastigotes than to macrophages or splenocytes. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that the R72 β-lapachone derivative affected the T. cruzi morphology and surface topography. General plasma membrane waving and blebbing particularly on the cytostome region were observed in the R72-treated parasites. Transmission electron microscopy observations confirmed the surface damage at the cytostome opening vicinity. We also observed ultrastructural evidence of the autophagic mechanism termed macroautophagy. Some of the autophagosomes involved large portions of the parasite cytoplasm and their fusion/confluence may lead to necrotic parasite death. The remarkably enhanced frequency of autophagy triggering was confirmed by quantitating monodansylcadaverine labeling. Some cells displayed evidence of chromatin pycnosis and nuclear fragmentation were detected. This latter phenomenon was also indicated by DAPI staining of R72-treated cells. The apoptotis induction was suggested to take place in circa one-third of the parasites assessed by annexin V labeling measured by flow cytometry. TUNEL staining corroborated the apoptosis induction. Propidium iodide labeling indicate that at least 10% of the R72-treated parasites suffered necrosis within 24 h. The present data indicate that the β-lapachone derivative R72 selectively triggers T. cruzi cell death, involving both apoptosis and autophagy-induced necrosis.

Chiral Alkyl Halides: Underexplored Motifs in Medicine

While alkyl halides are valuable intermediates in synthetic organic chemistry, their use as bioactive motifs in drug discovery and medicinal chemistry is rare in comparison. This is likely attributable to the common misconception that these compounds are merely non-specific alkylators in biological systems. A number of chlorinated compounds in the pharmaceutical and food industries, as well as a growing number of halogenated marine natural products showing unique bioactivity, illustrate the role that chiral alkyl halides can play in drug discovery. Through a series of case studies, we demonstrate in this review that these motifs can indeed be stable under physiological conditions, and that halogenation can enhance bioactivity through both steric and electronic effects. Our hope is that, by placing such compounds in the minds of the chemical community, they may gain more traction in drug discovery and inspire more synthetic chemists to develop methods for selective halogenation.

A facile one-pot ultrasound assisted for an efficient synthesis of benzo[g]chromenes using Fe3O4/polyethylene glycol (PEG) core/shell nanoparticles

In this research, a general synthetic method for the synthesis of benzo[g]chromenes has been developed using Fe3O4/polyethylene glycol (PEG) core/shell nanoparticle under ultrasonic irradiations. Compared to the conventional methods, ultrasound procedure showed several advantages including mild reaction conditions, high yield products, short reaction times, reusability of the catalyst and little catalyst loading.

Evaluation of 7-arylaminopyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines as anti-Plasmodium falciparum, antimalarial, and Pf-dihydroorotate dehydrogenase inhibitors

Malaria remains one of the most serious global infectious diseases. An important target for antimalarial chemotherapy is the enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase from Plasmodium falciparum (PfDHODH), which is responsible for the conversion of dihydroorotate to orotate in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway. In this study, we have designed and synthesized fifteen 7-arylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives using ring bioisosteric replacement and molecular hybridization of functional groups based on the highly active 5-methyl-N-(naphthalen-2-yl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)- [1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7-amine. The compounds were tested against Plasmodium falciparum, as antimalarials in mice with P. berghei, and as inhibitors of PfDHODH. Thirteen compounds were found to be active against P. falciparum, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 1.2 ± 0.3 to 92 ± 26 μM in the anti-HRP2 and hypoxanthine assays. Four compounds showed the highest selective index (SI), which is a ratio between cytotoxicity and activity in vitro. The inhibition of PfDHODH showed that compound 30 (R₂ = CH₃; R₅ = CF₃; Ar = 7-β-naphthyl) displayed higher and selective inhibitory activity, with IC₅₀ = 0.16 ± 0.01 μM, followed by 25 (R₂ = CH₃; R₅ = CH₃; Ar = 7-β-Naphthyl) and 19 (R₂ = CF₃; R₅ = CF₃; Ar = 7-β-naphthyl), with IC₅₀ = 4 ± 1 μM and 6 ± 1 μM, respectively. The trifluoromethyl group at the 2- or 5-positions of the pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine ring led to increased drug activity. The docking results agreed with the values obtained from enzymatic assays.

Cytotoxicity, hemolysis and in vivo acute toxicity of 2-hydroxy-3-anilino-1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives

The 1,4-naphthoquinones, important members of the family of quinones are used as both crude extracts and as compound manipulated by the pharmaceutical industry. They have gained great emphasis by presenting different pharmacological properties as antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal and anthelmintic, and has antitumor activity. Our aim was to evaluate the cytotoxicity, hemolytic activity and in vivo acute toxicity of three derivatives of 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinones. The cell viability in vitro against RAW Cell Line displayed IC₅₀ ranging of 483.5–2044.8 μM, whereas in primary culture tests using murine macrophages, IC₅₀ were 315.8–1408.0 μM for naphthoquinones derivatives 4a and 4c respectively, besides no hemolysis was observed at the dose tested. The in vivo acute toxicity assays exhibited a significant safety margin indicated by a lack of systemic and behavioral toxicity up to 300 mg/kg, and at a dose of 1000 mg/kg the derivatives not triggering signs of toxicity although the compound 4a have promoted hepatic steatosis and hyperemia in kidney tissue. Thereby, these modifications decrease the toxicity of the tested derivatives naphthoquinones, providing a high potential for the development of news drugs.

β-Lapachone increases phase II antioxidant enzyme expression via NQO1-AMPK/PI3K-Nrf2/ARE signaling in rat primary astrocytes

β-Lapachone (β-LAP) is a naturally occurring quinine that exerts a number of pharmacological actions including antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, and antitumor activities. In the present study, we investigated whether β-LAP has an antioxidant effect in rat primary astrocytes. β-LAP suppressed intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production induced by hydrogen peroxide and inhibited astroglial cell death. It also increased astrocytic expression of phase II antioxidant enzymes such as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), and catalase. Further mechanistic studies revealed that β-LAP activated AMPK and Akt, and pretreatment of cells with an AMPK inhibitor (compound C) or PI3K/Akt inhibitor (LY294002) suppressed β-LAP-induced antioxidant enzyme expression by inhibiting Nrf2/antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling. Compound C also decreased Akt phosphorylation, suggesting that AMPK is upstream of PI3K/Akt. Furthermore, the AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-β-d-ribofuranoside mimicked the effect of β-LAP by increasing Akt phosphorylation and ARE-mediated transcription, suggesting that AMPK plays a pivotal role in β-LAP-mediated antioxidant enzyme expression. Because β-LAP effects are usually associated with NQO1 activity, we examined the effect of NQO1 knockdown on antioxidant enzyme expression. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) specific for NQO1 inhibited β-LAP-induced AMPK/Akt phosphorylation and downstream antioxidant enzyme expression. Collectively, the results suggest that β-LAP increases antioxidant enzyme gene expression in astrocytes by modulating NQO1-AMPK/PI3K-Nrf2/ARE signaling.

o-Iodoxybenzoic Acid-Initiated One-Pot Synthesis of 4-Arylthio-1,2-naphthoquinones, 4-Arylthio-1,2-diacetoxynaphthalenes, and 5-Arylthio-/5-Aminobenzo[a]phenazines

1,2-Naphthoquiones and their derivatives constitute an important category of compounds of relevance in pharmaceutical and material chemistry. It is shown that 1,2-naphthoquinones generated by o-iodoxybenzoic acid-mediated oxidation of 2-naphthols can be subjected to a cascade of reactions, namely oxidation, Michael addition, reduction, acetylation, and cyclocondensation, in the same pot to afford diverse 4-arylthio-1,2-naphthoquinones 2, 4-arylthio-1,2-diacetoxynaphthalenes 3, and 5-arylthio-/5-aminobenzo[a]phenazines 4 in very good isolated yields. The multistep single-pot synthesis occurs smoothly in DMF at rt.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Bioactive Six-Membered Heterocycles and Their Fused Analogues

This review describes the formation of six-membered heterocyclic compounds and their fused analogues under microwave activation using modern organic transformations including cyclocondensation, cycloaddition, multicomponents and other modular reactions. The review is divided according to the main heterocycle types in order of increasing complexity, starting with heterocyclic systems containing one, two and three heteroatoms and their fused analogues. Recent microwave applications are reviewed, with special focus on the chemistry of bioactive compounds. Selected examples from the 2006 to 2015 literature are discussed.

Toxocara canis: anthelmintic activity of quinone derivatives in murine toxocarosis

Human toxocarosis is a chronic tissue parasitosis most often caused by Toxocara canis. The seroprevalence can reach up to 50%, especially among children and adolescents. The anthelmintics used in the treatment have moderate efficacy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity of quinones and their derivatives against T. canis larvae and the cytotoxicity of the larvicidal compounds. The compounds were evaluated at 1 mg mL(-1) concentration in microculture plates containing third stage larvae in an Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI) 1640 environment, incubated at 37 °C in 5% CO2 tension for 48 h. Five naphthoxiranes were selected for the cytotoxicity analysis. The cell viability evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide and lactate dehydrogenase assays using murine peritoneal macrophages isolated from C57BL/6 mice revealed that the naphthoxiranes (1 and 3) were less cytotoxic at a concentration of 0.05 mg mL(-1). The efficacy of naphthoxiranes (1 and 3) was examined in murine toxocarosis also. The anthelmintic activity was examined by evaluating the number of larvae in the brain, carcass, liver, lungs, heart, kidneys and eyes. Compound (3) demonstrated anthelmintic activity similar to that of albendazole by decreasing the number of larvae in the organs of mice and thus could form the basis of the development of a new anthelmintic drug.

ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF LAPACHOL, β-LAPACHONE AND ITS DERIVATIVES AGAINST Toxocara canis LARVAE

Anthelmintics used for intestinal helminthiasis treatment are generally effective; however, their effectiveness in tissue parasitosis (i.e. visceral toxocariasis) is moderate. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of lapachol, β-lapachone and phenazines in relation to the viability of Toxocara canis larvae. A concentration of 2 mg/mL (in duplicate) of the compounds was tested using microculture plates containing Toxocara canis larvae in an RPMI-1640 environment, incubated at 37 °C in 5% CO2 tension for 48 hours. In the 2 mg/mL concentration, four phenazines, lapachol and three of its derivatives presented a larvicide/larvistatic activity of 100%. Then, the minimum larvicide/larvistatic concentration (MLC) test was conducted. The compounds that presented the best results were nor-lapachol (MLC, 1 mg/mL), lapachol (MLC 0.5 mg/mL), β-lapachone, and β-C-allyl-lawsone (MLC, 0.25 mg/mL). The larvae exposed to the compounds, at best MLC with 100% in vitro activity larvicide, were inoculated into healthy BALB/c mice and were not capable of causing infection, confirming the larvicide potential in vitro of these compounds.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of new pyranopyridine derivatives catalyzed by guanidinium chloride-functionalized γ-Fe2O3/HAp magnetic nanoparticles

Herein, we described the synthesis of γ-Fe₂O₃@HAP-GndCl MNPs as an efficient and recyclable nanocatalyst for synthesis of new pyranopyridine derivatives under solvent-free condition and then evaluated for theirs antioxidant and antifungal activities.

Palladium(ii)-catalyzed hydroxy-involved enolate-type efficient C–C functionalization of hydroxynaphthoquinones at room temperature

A simple, mild, efficient and scalable strategy has been developed for synthesizing hydroxynaphthoquinones via a Pd-catalyzed hydroxy-involved enolate-type reaction.

Heterogenization of an imidazolium ionic liquid based on magnetic carbon nanotubes as a novel organocatalyst for the synthesis of 2-amino-chromenes via a microwave-assisted multicomponent strategy

The microwave-assisted synthesis of the first ionic liquid stabilized CNTs–Fe₃O₄as a novel nanocatalyst for the synthesis of 2-amino-chromenesviaa multicomponent reaction is reported.

DABCO catalyzed domino Michael/hydroalkoxylation reaction involving α-alkynyl-β-aryl nitroolefins: excellent stereoselective access to dihydropyrano[3,2-c]chromenes, pyranonaphthoquinones and related heterocycles

The stereoselective (up to ≤96 : 4 Z/E ratio) access to pyrano[3,2-c]chromenes and related scaffolds has been achieved in 72–89% yields via a domino reaction of enolizable cyclic 1,3-dicarbonyls and β-alkynyl nitroolefins.

Further evidence that naphthoquinone inhibits Toxoplasma gondii growth in vitro

Toxoplasmosis is a widely disseminated disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular protozoan parasite. Standard treatment causes many side effects, such as depletion of bone marrow cells, skin rashes and gastrointestinal implications. Therefore, it is necessary to find chemotherapeutic alternatives for the treatment of this disease. It was shown that a naphthoquinone derivative compound is active against T. gondii, RH strain, with an IC50 around 2.5 μM. Here, three different naphthoquinone derivative compounds with activity against leukemia cells and breast carcinoma cell were tested against T. gondii (RH strain) infected LLC-MK2 cell line. All the compounds were able to inhibit parasite growth in vitro, but one of them showed an IC50 activity below 1 μM after 48 h of treatment. The compounds showed low toxicity to the host cell. In addition, these compounds were able to induce tachyzoite-bradyzoite conversion confirmed by morphological changes, Dolichus biflorus lectin cyst wall labeling and characterization of amylopectin granules in the parasites by electron microscopy analysis using the Thierry technique. Furthermore, the compounds induced alterations on the ultrastructure of the parasite. Taken together, our results point to the naphthoquinone derivative (LQB 151) as a potential compound for the development of new drugs for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.

Crystal structures and conformational analyses of three pyranochromene derivatives

The title compounds, C27H20O6, (I) [systematic name: methyl 7-oxo-14-phenyl-1H,7H,14H-pyrano[3,2-c:5,4-c']dichromene-14a(6bH)-carboxyl-ate], C24H22O5, (II) [systematic name: methyl 1-oxo-6-phenyl-2,3,4,12b-tetra-hydro-1H,6H-chromeno[3,4-c]chromene-6a(7H)-carboxyl-ate], and C25H23N3O4, (III) [systematic name: 6-(4-ethyl-phen-yl)-2,4-dimethyl-1,3-dioxo-2,3,4,12b-tetra-hydro-1H,6H-chromeno[4',3':4,5]pyrano[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6a(7H)-carbo-nitrile], are pyran-ochromene derivatives. The central pyran rings (B) of compounds (I) and (III) adopt half-chair conformations, whereas that of compound (II) adopts a sofa conformation. The pyran rings (A) of the chromene ring systems of compounds (II) and (III) adopt half-chair conformations, while that of compound (I) adopts a sofa conformation. The mean plane of the central pyran rings (B) make dihedral angles of 70.02 (6), 61.52 (6) and 69.12 (7)°, respectively, with the mean planes of the chromene moieties (C+A) of compounds (I), (II) and (III). The bicyclic coumarin ring system (C+A+B+E) in compound (I) is almost planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.042 Å). The carbo-nitrile side chain in compound (III) is very nearly linear, with the C-C N angle being 176.6 (2)°. The cyclo-hexene ring (E), fused with the central pyran ring (B) in compound (II) adopts a sofa conformation. In the mol-ecular structures of compounds (II) and (III), there are C-H⋯O short contacts, which generate S(7) ring motifs. In the crystal structures of the title compounds, mol-ecules are linked by C-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, which generate mol-ecular sheets parallel to the ab plane, with R 4 (3)(28) loops in (I), inversion dimers with R 2 (2)(10) loops in (II) and chains along [010] with R 2 (2)(12) ring motifs in (III). In the crystal structures of (I) and (III), there are also C-H⋯π inter-actions present, leading to the formation of a three-dimensional framework in (II) and to sheets parallel to (101) in (III).

Anti-Plasmodium falciparum activity of quinoline-sulfonamide hybrids

Fifteen quinoline-sulfonamide hybrids, with a 7-chloroquinoline moiety connected by a linker group to arylsulfonamide moieties with different substituents in the 4-position were synthesized and assayed against Plasmodium falciparum. The compounds displayed high schizonticidal blood activity in vitro, with IC50 values ranging from 0.05 to 1.63 μM, in the anti-HPR2 assay against clone W2-chloroquine-resistant; ten of them showed an IC50 (ranging from 0.05 to 0.40 μM) lower than that of chloroquine and sulfadoxine. Among them, two compounds inhibited Plasmodium berghei parasitemia by 47% and 49% on day 5 after mice inoculation. The most active, in vivo, hybrid 13 is considered to be a new prototype for the development of an antimalarial drug against chloroquine-resistant parasites.

New quinoline derivatives demonstrate a promising antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and Plasmodium berghei in vivo

Malaria continues to be an important public health problem in the world. Nowadays, the widespread parasite resistance to many drugs used in antimalarial therapy has made the effective treatment of cases and control of the disease a constant challenge. Therefore, the discovery of new molecules with good antimalarial activity and tolerance to human use can be really important in the further treatment of the disease. In this study we have investigated the antiplasmodial activity of 10 synthetic compounds derived from quinoline, five of them combined to sulfonamide and five to the hydrazine or hydrazide group. The compounds were evaluated according to their cytotoxicity against HepG2 and HeLa cell lines, their antimalarial activity against CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains and, finally, their schizonticide blood action in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei NK65. The compounds exhibited no cytotoxic action in HepG2 and HeLa cell lines when tested up to a concentration of 100 μg/mL. In addition, the hydrazine or hydrazide derivative compounds were less cytotoxic against cell lines and more active against CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant P. falciparum strains, showing high SI (>1000 when SI was calculated using the CC50 from the 3D7 strain as reference). When tested in vivo, the hydrazine derivative 1f compound showed activity against the development of blood parasites similar to that observed with CQ, the reference drug. Interestingly, the 1f compound demonstrated the best LipE value (4.84) among all those tested in vivo. Considering the in vitro and in vivo activities of the compounds studied here and the LipE values, we believe the 1f compound to be the most promising molecule for further studies in antimalarial chemotherapy.

Functional gene-based discovery of phenazines from the actinobacteria associated with marine sponges in the South China Sea

Phenazines represent a large group of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds produced by the diverse group of bacteria including actinobacteria. In this study, a total of 197 actinobacterial strains were isolated from seven different marine sponge species in the South China Sea using five different culture media. Eighty-seven morphologically different actinobacterial strains were selected and grouped into 13 genera, including Actinoalloteichus, Kocuria, Micrococcus, Micromonospora, Mycobacterium, Nocardiopsis, Prauserella, Rhodococcus, Saccharopolyspora, Salinispora, Serinicoccus, and Streptomyces by the phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene. Based on the screening of phzE genes, ten strains, including five Streptomyces, two Nocardiopsis, one Salinispora, one Micrococcus, and one Serinicoccus were found to be potential for phenazine production. The level of phzE gene expression was highly expressed in Nocardiopsis sp. 13-33-15, 13-12-13, and Serinicoccus sp. 13-12-4 on the fifth day of fermentation. Finally, 1,6-dihydroxy phenazine (1) from Nocardiopsis sp. 13-33-15 and 13-12-13, and 1,6-dimethoxy phenazine (2) from Nocardiopsis sp. 13-33-15 were isolated and identified successfully based on ESI-MS and NMR analysis. The compounds 1 and 2 showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus mycoides SJ14, Staphylococcus aureus SJ51, Escherichia coli SJ42, and Micrococcus luteus SJ47. This study suggests that the integrated approach of gene screening and chemical analysis is an effective strategy to find the target compounds and lays the basis for the production of phenazine from the sponge-associated actinobacteria.