Towards quantitative 3D imaging of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular network

Strain amplification in bone mechanobiology: a computational investigation of the in vivo mechanics of osteocytes

The osteocyte is believed to act as the main sensor of mechanical stimulus in bone, controlling signalling for bone growth and resorption in response to changes in the mechanical demands placed on our bones throughout life. However, the precise mechanical stimuli that bone cells experience in vivo are not yet fully understood. The objective of this study is to use computational methods to predict the loading conditions experienced by osteocytes during normal physiological activities. Confocal imaging of the lacunar-canalicular network was used to develop three-dimensional finite element models of osteocytes, including their cell body, and the surrounding pericellular matrix (PCM) and extracellular matrix (ECM). We investigated the role of the PCM and ECM projections for amplifying mechanical stimulation to the cells. At loading levels, representing vigorous physiological activity (3000 µε), our results provide direct evidence that (i) confocal image-derived models predict 350-400% greater strain amplification experienced by osteocytes compared with an idealized cell, (ii) the PCM increases the cell volume stimulated more than 3500 µε by 4-10% and (iii) ECM projections amplify strain to the cell by approximately 50-420%. These are the first confocal image-derived computational models to predict osteocyte strain in vivo and provide an insight into the mechanobiology of the osteocyte.

Increased proportion of hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae in osteoporotic and osteoarthritic human trabecular bone: implications for bone remodeling

Hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae (micropetrosis) have received little research attention. While they are a known aspect of the aging human skeleton, no data are available for pathological bone. In this study, intertrochanteric trabecular bone cores were obtained from patients at surgery for osteoporotic (OP) femoral neck fracture (10F, 4M, 65-94 years), for hip osteoarthritis (OA; 7F, 8M, 62-87 years), and femora at autopsy (CTL; 5F, 11M, 60-84 years). Vertebral trabecular bone cores were also obtained from the vertebra of autopsy cases (CVB; 3F, 6M, 53-83 years). Specimens were resin-embedded, polished, and carbon coated for quantitative backscattered electron imaging (qBEI), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometry, and imaging analysis. Bone mineralization (Wt %Ca) was not different between OP, OA, and CTL; but was greater in femoral CTL than in CVB. The percent of hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae relative to the total number (HL/TL) was greater in OP and OA than in CTL. However, relative to bone mineral area, OP was characterised by increased hypermineralized osteocyte lacunar number density (Hd.Lc.Dn), whereas OA was characterised by decreased osteocyte lacunar number density (Lc.Dn) and total osteocyte lacunar number density (Tt.Lc.Dn). Lc.Dn was higher in CVB than in femoral CTL. The calcium-phosphorus ratio (R(Ca/P)) was not different between hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae and bone matrix in each group. In addition, this study focused on the phenomenon of osteocyte lacunae hypermineralization using qBEI. Seven morphological types of osteocyte lacunae hypermineralization were described according to the presence of one or several hypermineralized spherites, associated or not with a hypermineralized lacunar ring. This study has described, for the first time, the morphology of hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae in OP and OA human bone. Further studies are suggested to investigate the functional influence of hypermineralized osteocyte lacunae on bone remodeling and bone biomechanical properties.

Inflammatory bone loss: pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention

Bone is a tissue undergoing continuous building and degradation. This remodelling is a tightly regulated process that can be disturbed by many factors, particularly hormonal changes. Chronic inflammation can also perturb bone metabolism and promote increased bone loss. Inflammatory diseases can arise all over the body, including in the musculoskeletal system (for example, rheumatoid arthritis), the intestine (for example, inflammatory bowel disease), the oral cavity (for example, periodontitis) and the lung (for example, cystic fibrosis). Wherever inflammatory diseases occur, systemic effects on bone will ensue, as well as increased fracture risk. Here, we discuss the cellular and signalling pathways underlying, and strategies for therapeutically interfering with, the inflammatory loss of bone.

Changes in intracortical microporosities induced by pharmaceutical treatment of osteoporosis as detected by high resolution micro-CT

Bone's microporosities play important biologic and mechanical roles. Here, we quantified 3D changes in cortical osteocyte-lacunae and other small porosities induced by estrogen withdrawal and two different osteoporosis treatments. Unlike 2D measurements, these data collected via synchrotron radiation-based μCT describe the size and 3D spatial distribution of a large number of porous structures. Six-month old female Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into four groups of age-matched controls, untreated OVX, OVX treated with PTH, and OVX treated with Alendronate (ALN). Intracortical microporosity of the medial quadrant of the femoral diaphysis was quantified at endosteal, intracortical, and periosteal regions of the samples, allowing the quantification of osteocyte lacunae that were formed primarily before versus after the start of treatment. Across the overall thickness of the medial cortex, lacunar volume fraction (Lc.V/TV) was significantly lower in ALN treated rats compared to PTH. In the endosteal region, average osteocyte lacunar volume (<Lc.V>) of untreated OVX rats was significantly lower than in age-matched controls, indicating a decrease in osteocyte lacunar size in bone formed on the endosteal surface after estrogen withdrawal. The effect of treatment (OVX, ALN, PTH) on the number of lacunae per tissue volume (Lc.N/TV) was dependent on the specific location within the cortex (endosteal, intracortical, periosteal). In both the endosteal and intracortical regions, Lc.N/TV was significantly lower in ALN than in untreated OVX, suggesting a site-specific effect in osteocyte lacuna density with ALN treatment. There also were a significantly greater number of small pores (5-100 μm(3) in volume) in the endosteal region for PTH compared to ALN. The mechanical impact of this altered microporosity structure is unknown, but might serve to enhance, rather than deteriorate bone strength with PTH treatment, as smaller osteocyte lacunae may be better able to absorb shear forces than larger lacunae. Together, these data demonstrate that current treatments of osteoporosis can alter the number, size, and distribution of microporosities in cortical rat lamellar bone.

Serial FIB/SEM imaging for quantitative 3D assessment of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular network

Up to now, a quantitative three-dimensional (3D) assessment of the lacuno-canalicular network (LCN) within bone has not been achieved in a comprehensive way and the LCN has mostly been investigated using two-dimensional imaging methods only. First attempts for the 3D assessment of the osteocytes and their cell processes have been reported using different imaging techniques. Nevertheless, various experimental limitations allowed for assessment of isolated or incompletely interconnected osteocytes only. On the other hand, serial focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM) currently seems to be a promising imaging method for quantitative 3D assessment of the LCN. However, combined 3D visualization and quantification of the LCN using serial FIB/SEM imaging has not been reported so far. The aim of this study was to provide a proof of concept that serial FIB/SEM meets all requirements for quantitative 3D imaging of the LCN. To this end, we developed a new bone sample preparation protocol for serial FIB/SEM imaging providing a resolution on the order of 30nm. This technique was successfully applied to the mid-diaphysis of a mouse femur. Moreover, we devised and applied novel measures for subsequent quantitative 3D morphometry of the LCN. Briefly, serial FIB/SEM was shown to be an appropriate technique to quantify the morphology of the LCN truly in 3D. This will allow investigating bone matrix changes on an ultrastructural level, which result from aging, disease, and treatment.

Ptychographic X-ray computed tomography at the nanoscale

X-ray tomography is an invaluable tool in biomedical imaging. It can deliver the three-dimensional internal structure of entire organisms as well as that of single cells, and even gives access to quantitative information, crucially important both for medical applications and for basic research. Most frequently such information is based on X-ray attenuation. Phase contrast is sometimes used for improved visibility but remains significantly harder to quantify. Here we describe an X-ray computed tomography technique that generates quantitative high-contrast three-dimensional electron density maps from phase contrast information without reverting to assumptions of a weak phase object or negligible absorption. This method uses a ptychographic coherent imaging approach to record tomographic data sets, exploiting both the high penetration power of hard X-rays and the high sensitivity of lensless imaging. As an example, we present images of a bone sample in which structures on the 100 nm length scale such as the osteocyte lacunae and the interconnective canalicular network are clearly resolved. The recovered electron density map provides a contrast high enough to estimate nanoscale bone density variations of less than one per cent. We expect this high-resolution tomography technique to provide invaluable information for both the life and materials sciences.